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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
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F  11-20M  |'[;NOIS  HISTORICAL  SIWV^Y 


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NOTES 


ox    THE 


NORTHWEST, 


OR 


•A; 


VALLEY  OF  THE  UPPER  MLSSLSIPPL 


rOMPRISINO    THE    COTNTRY    BETWEEN     LAKES     Sl'PERlOR    AND    Ml(  IlIOAS,    EAST  ;    THE 

ILLINOIS    A>D    MISSOVR'    RIVERS,    AND    TUE    NORTHERS    BOl'NDARY  OF  THE    UNITED 

states; — INCLUDING    IOWA  AND  WISCONSIN,  PART    OF    MKIIIOAN    MIRTHWEST 

OK   THE    STRAITS    OF    MACKINAW,  AND  NORTHERN    ILLINOIS    AND  MISSOIRI. 


B\ 


WM.   J.   A.   BRADFORD. 


►>^ 


NEW  YORK  AND    LONDON  : 

WILEY    A  N  1)    P  U  T  N  A  M 


^ 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1846,  by 
WILEY     AND     PUTNAM, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


<^ 


1 


4A   S 


R.  f!»AtoH«Ai>'B  Power  Presi' 
113  Fulton  Street 


INTRODUCTION. 


<^ 


>-> 


v-< 


The  present  work  covers,  in  part,  new  ground  geographical- 
ly : — and  diflcrs  in  design,  plan,  and  mode  of  treatment, 
from  those  that  have  before  appeared  descriptive  of  some 
portions  of  the  district  of  which  it  treats. 

Though  for  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  kno%vn  to  the 
French  Missionaries,  the  voyageurs,  and  the  coureurs  des 
bois,  and  to  those  few  who  went  out  as  discoverers  and  ex- 
plorers, yet  it  was  almost  wholly  an  unknown  region  to  our 
American  geographers  only  twenty  years  since.  Mr.  Darby, 
in  his  Gazetteer  date  1827,  says  that  much  of  the  portion 
west  of  the  Missisippi  is  unknown. 

Most  of  the  books  that  have  been  published  in  relation  to 
this  country,  have  been  designed  only  for  guides  to  travellers 
and  emigrants  ; — and  have  consequently  been  subject,  so  far 
as  the  general  reader  has  been  concerned,  to  tlic  twofold 
objection  that  they  were  too  much  in  detail  to  be  of  interest 
to  them,  or  to  embody  that  kind  of  information,  in  that 
shape,  that  would  be  valuable  ; — and  also  that  by  tlie  rapid 
transitions  constantly  in  progress  in  this  part  of  the  countiy, 
they  very  soon  became  antiquated  and  not  to  be  confided  in 

1  C>QJ1^V> 


IV  IXTRODLXTION. 

for  present  information,  and  possess  only  the  value  of  a  past 
year's  almanac  ;  the  fate  necessarily  of  books  of  mere  details. 

The  country  of  which  the  present  volume  treats  is  one  of 
great  interest  intrinsically,  and  especially  at  this  time  when 
two  new  sovereignties  are  about  to  be  established  within  its 
limits.  And  the  object  of  the  writer  has  been,  to  put 
together  some  notes  upon  it,  in  such  form  as  will  be  inter- 
esting to  persons  seeking  general  information  in  relation  to 
the  United  States,  and  of  such  a  kind  as  will  be  more  per- 
manent than  the  usual  chapters  of  detail. 

The  physical  geography  of  a  country  will,  of  course,  xe- 
main  unchanged,  w^hile  the  descriptions  of  towns  given 
to-day  will  hardly  apply  to  the  same  place  when  the  earth 
shall  come  again  to  the  same  place  in  its  orbit. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  history  of  a  country.  What  has 
transpired  will  not  be  effaced  by  a  new^  P^'^ge,  but  what  is 
once  written  will  remain. 

The  other  portions  of  the  work  are  not  of  so  permanent  a 
nature,  yet  a  considerable  portion  of  the  remaining  three 
parts  will  not  very  soon  become  obsolete.  The  population 
and  municipalities,  the  state  of  society,  and  the  pursuits  of 
the  people,  will  undergo  modifications.  They  are,  however, 
made  to  occupy  a  subordinate  place  in  the  work. 

The  physical  description  of  the  country  has  been  drawn 
almost  exclusively  from  two  sources  :  the  wTiter's  own  ob- 
servation, and  the  very  excellent  and  graphic  report  of  Mr. 
Nicollet  to  the  Topographical  Bureau  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment of  the  United  States  :  from  which,  being  the  only  pub- 
lished description  of  a  considerable  portion  of  this  country, 


INTRODUCTION.  V 

narrated  in  very  animaled  style,  large  extracts  have  been 
transcribed  literally,  as  belter  than  a  reproduction  in  new 
shape. 

The  history  has  been  collected  from  a  variety  of  sources  : 
some  of  them  of  undoubted  authenticity.  Some  of  the 
older  relations,  however,  to  which  resort  must  be  had  to 
ascertain  the  early  events  connected  with  the  discovery  of 
tlic  country,  are  not  to  be  received  without  caution.  The 
practice  among  the  French  of  publisliing  books  in  names  of 
other  persons,  not  the  authors  of  them,  has  thrown  doubts 
over  some  of  its  story.  M.  Tonti  disclaimed  the  author- 
ship of  the  volume  published  in  his  name  ;  and  it  is  proba- 
ble the  same  liberty  may  have  been  taken  with  others. 

Parts  III.  and  IV.  are  principally  the  result  of  the  writer's 
observation,  aided  in  some  particulars  by  ]\Ir.  Wetmore's 
Gazetteer  of  Missouri,  by  a  contribution  of  a  gentleman  of 
Wisconsin,  and  by  some  few  public  documents. 

The  reports  of  Mr.  Owen  and  Nicollet,  being  very  full 
and  correct  on  the  geology  of  this  region,  large  extracts  from 
them  have  been  transcribed  in  the  Appendix,  and  that  part  of 
the  volume  consists  of  little  else  than  extracts  from  these 
reports  and  Mr.  Keating's  descriptions.  These  form  the 
most  complete  and  satisfactory  account  of  the  geology  of  the 
district  that  can  be  furnished  ;  and  it  was  thought  best  to  in- 
sert them  literally.  On  that  account  this  has  been  placed  in 
the  Appendix,  though  the  subject  would  make  it  more  ap- 
propriate to  the  body  of  the  work.  In  the  Appendix  also  is 
a  very  curious  and  interesting  extract  from  Mr.  Owen's 
Report,   giving  a  minute  description   of    some  earth   work 


X 


PART  I. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

This  country  (west  of  Lake  Micliigan)  was  almost  un- 
known to  geographers  twenty  years  ago.  The  report  of 
Rev.  J.  Morse  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  in  1821,  states  that 
in  1819  there  were  but  three  famihes  settled  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Illinois  up  two  hundred  and  forty  miles,  and  Darby,  in 
his  Gazetteer  (2d  edit.,  1827),  says,  "of  this  immense  re- 
gion" (included  l)ctwecn  Lakes  Micliigan  and  Superior,  Rivers 
Missisippi  and  Red,  the  Stale  of  Missouri  and  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  United  States)  "  mucli  remains  unknown, 
and  of  those  parts  that  have  been  explored,  our  information 
is  generally  imperfect."  [Verb.  Michigan.]  Galena  was 
settled  in  1828;  and  in  1833,  after  the  Black  Hawk  war, 
settlements  began  on  Rock  River  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Illinois  and  in  Iowa,  upon  tlic  tract  purchased  of  the  Sacs 
and  Foxes.  In  the  list  of  rivers  flowing  into  the  Upper  Mis- 
sisippi, in  the  same  work,  arc  several  defects  and  eiTors. 
On  the  right  side,  Root  and  Wabsipinicon  and  Checagua  (or 
Skunk)  are  omitted  ;  and  that  now  known  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Iowa  as  Tete  des  Moris,  is  called  Galena.  On  the  left, 
some  considerable  streams  arc  not  named.  The  falls  of  St. 
Anthony  are  placed,  in  the  same  authority,  in  latitude  44^, 
wliich  is  one  degi-ee  south  of  their  true  situation. 

It  is  said  that  the  list  is  given  mostly  on  the  autliority  of 
Schoolcraft,  and  they  are  also  inore  minutely  detailed  front  the 


2  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

circumstances  that  the  valley  of  the  Missisipjn  is  yet  imper- 
fectly  known,  of  great  importance  in  the  geography  of  the 
United  States,  and  that  the  source  of  intelligence  is  recent 
and  respectable.  Mr.  Darby  well  said  that  the  knowledge 
of  this  region  was  imperfect ;  for  we  are  informed  by  Mr. 
Schoolcraft,  to  whom  he  refers  as  a  sonrce  recent  and 
respectable,  that  the  Rock  River  Rapids  extend  six  miles  up 
the  river.  Their  length  is,  in  fact,  fifteen  miles.  Another 
strikincT  instance  of  the  errors  in  regard  to  this  country,  is  in 
the  statement  of  Mr.  Brackenridge,  that  the  St.  Peter's  enters 
the  Missisippi  forty  miles  below  St.  Anthony,  and  is  navi- 
gable one  thousand  miles  to  its  source — when,  in  fact,  it  is 
nine  miles  from  the  falls,  and  its  whole  length  is  less  than 
five  hundred  miles.  In  some  maps  of  this  country,  still 
more  recent,  published  Avithin  twelve  years  of  the  time  of 
writmg  this,  there  also  appear  similar  inaccuracies.  It  is, 
in  fact,  only  since  the  termination  of  the  Black  Hawk  war, 
and  the  settlement  of  the  country  consequent  thereon,  that 
it  has  become  known  to  geographers  and  to  the  world. 

The  country  which  is  here  intended  to  be  included  in  tlie 
name  of  the  Northwest,  or  the  Upper  Missisippi  valley,  is 
bounded  on  the  ea^t  and  southeast  by  the  Lake  ^Michigan 
and  the  waters  connecting  it  with  Lake  Superior,  and  by 
Illinois  River ;  on  the  south,  southwest,  and  west,  by  the 
Missouri  River ;  and  on  the  north  by  the  line  separating  the 
territory  of  the  United  States  from  the  British  Possessions. 
It  comprehends  about  10°  of  latitude,  from  39°  to  49°,  and 
14°  of  longitude,  from  87°  to  101°  (10°  to  24°  from  Wash- 
ington), and  contains  about  300,000  square  miles.  A  large 
part  of  this  tract,  consisting  of  the  northern  portion,  is  still 
held  by  the  Indians  ;  and  the  Notes,  excepting  those  relating 
to  the  geography,  history  and  climate,  will,  for  the  most, 
apply  to  its  remaining  or  southeastern  portion. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  8 

This  country  has  some  vciy  pecuhar  natural  features. 
The  most  remarkable  ui  these  is  the  innimicrable  multitude 
of  lakes  that  spangle  its  northern  surface,  the  remains,  no 
doubt,  of  a  vast  sea  that  once  covered  the  whole  country 
extending  north  from  the  ihiU  of  Mexico,  and  perhaps  reach- 
ing to  Hudson's  Bay. 

Besides  this,  there  arc  two  great  natural  features  belong- 
ing to  the  Valley  of  the  Upper  Missisippi,  which  perhaps 
are  never  fully  realized  but  by  actual  inspection.  The  first 
consists  in  the  uniformity  of  elevation,  and  the  shape  of  the 
surface.  The  countr}^,  from  the  outlets  of  the  Illinois  and 
Missouri  to  St.  Peter's,  and  from  the  Lake  Michigan  to 
Council  BlulTs,  and  beyond  that  point  westerly,  is  a  vast 
plain,  slightly  inclining,  ascending  to  the  north  and  to  the 
west.  By  observations  taken  between  the  Missisippi  and 
the  Lake,  the  elevation  above  the  Atlantic  has  been  found  a 
little  exceeding  500  feet :  and  west  of  the  river,  in  the  same 
parallel,  toward  the  Missouri,  something  over  700  feet.  At 
St.  Peter's  it  is  about  700.  Nicollet  states,  as  the  result 
of  over  one  hundred  observations  taken  at  Camp  Kearney, 
near  Council  Bluffs,  that  that  point  is  1037  feet  above  the 
Gulf ;  and  the  elevation  of  Rock  Island,  in  the  same  lati- 
tude, on  the  Missisippi,  he  says,  is  528 ;  and  the  hciglit  of 
Fort  Pierre  Chouteau,  uii  the  Missouri,  he  states  at  1456  ; 
and  the  lower  end  of  Lake  Pepin,  in  the  same  latitude  (44*^ 
24'),  710.  The  mouth  of  St  Peter's,  in  about  latitude  45°, 
744  feet.  Tliere  are  a  few  elevations  above  the  general 
range,  called  mounds  :  but  witli  tlie  exception  of  these,  the 
surface  is  marked  only  by  ravines  running  from  the  general 
level  down  to  the  beds  of  tlie  streams,  which  are  usually 
from  100  to  200  feet  lower. 

The  other  remarkable  prominent  feature  is  the  vegetable 
covering  of  the  surface.     There  are  large  tracts  of  country 


4  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

I 

wholly  destitute  of  tree  or  shrub,  and  covered  only  with  a 
luxuriant  orowth  of  wild  grass,  and  beautifully  interspersed 
wdth  flowers  of  every  hue  and  variety,  each  successively 
making   the  prairie   to   look   gay  with  their  presence  from 
April  to   October.     This  beautiful  natural   meadow  is   not 
more  pleasant  to  the  eye,  than  it  is  genial  to  the  culture  and 
grateful  to  the  toil  of  man.     It  consists  of  a  very  dark  brown 
vegetable  mould,  in  appearance  like  a  mixture  of  the  light 
feathery  part  of  ashes  with  a  rich  ooze.     It  is  mellow  beyond 
the  conception  of  those  w^io  are  acquainted  only  with  the 
hard,  stiff  soils  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  and  as  rich  and  pro- 
ductive as  it  is  mellow.     It  is  turned  over  by  a  prairie  plough 
running  on  wheels  and  set  to  cut  the  turf  in  a  regular  and 
uniform  parallelogTam,  about  three  inches  thick,  and  fifteen 
or  eighteen  inches  wide.     This  ploughing  should  be  done 
during  the  springing  of  vegetation,  or  one  of  the  three  sum- 
mer months  ;  though  May  would  usually  be  considered  bet- 
ter than  August  for  the  operation.     If  done  in  May  or  June, 
it  will,  in  some  cases,  be  ready  for  a  fall  sowing,  the  same 
year.     This  mould  is  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  deep 
usually,  and  sometimes  more  than  that ;  and  for  whole  sec- 
tions, for  several  townships  of  six  miles  square  in  extent,  a 
person  could  not  find  more  gravel  in  the  same  quantity  of 
mould  than  in  his  flour  barrel.     Below  this  rich  mould  is  a 
subsoil,  which  seems  not  unsuitable   to   cultivation,  being 
similar  in  appearance  to  the  soil  of  the  timbered  lands,  a 
yellow  light  clay,  or  clay  loam.     The  country  is  a  limestone 
formation.     The  timber  is  only  on  the  streams,  and  consists 
of  elm,  ash,  black  walnut,  butternut,  maple,  mulberry  and 
iron  wood   on  the  bottoms,  and  on  the  upland  wliite,  red, 
black,  and  burr  oak,  shell  bark  and  common  liickory,  with 
occasionally  linden,  birch,  wild  plum  and  cherry,  locust,  and 
some  other.     On  the  Wisconsin  and  St.   Croix  are  heavy 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  5 

growths  of  pine,  and  for  sovcral  years  past  a  great  business 
has  been  carried  on  upon  the  Missisippi  in  getting  lumber 
down  from  those  regions  to  the  towns  along  the  river. 

The  best  portions  of  lliis  Upper  Missisippi  Valley  are 
upon  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  including  the 
eastern  portion  of  Wisconsin  ;  the  Illinois  and  Rock  rivers, 
and  their  tributaries  ;  the  Missisippi  on  both  sides  ;  and  gene- 
rally the  whole  of  Iowa.  In  Iowa  the  prairies  are  less  ex- 
tensive than  in  Illinois,  and  the  proportion  of  wood  is  greater. 
In  the  southern  portion  of  Iowa,  below  the  Iowa  River,  the 
soil  is  more  stiff  than  to  the  north  of  that  river,  where,  by  a 
slight  admixture  of  fine  sand,  it  is  made  more  friable  and 
mellow.  By  reason  of  this  quality,  and  being  also,  for  the 
most  part,  more  level,  the  land  south  of  that  river  retains  its 
moisture  later  in  the  spring,  and  the  soil  thus  loses  the 
advantage  of  time  which  the  climate  would  give  in  the  differ- 
ence of  latitude. 

The  soil  of  the  prairie  is  deeper,  and  is  said  also  to  be 
richer  at  a  distance  from  timber  than  in  its  vicinity.  By 
scientific  examination,  it  has  been  found  that  carbonate  of 
lime  enters  into  its  composition  in  proportion  of  from  twenty 
to  forty  per  cent.  In  timber  lands  the  proportion  is  much 
less.  The  first  settlers,  however,  take  the  timber  land  for  the 
convenience  of  fuel  and  making  improvements.  Thus  the 
best  land  is  actually  the  last  taken.  The  soil  is  of  such  fer- 
tility, that  in  a  few  years,  if  the  fires  are  kept  out,  there  will 
be  an  abundant  growth  for  all  purposes.  In  the  Gazetteer 
of  Missouri,  by  Dr.  Beck,  published  in  1823,  it  is  stated 
that  St  Louis  county  is  generally  prairie  :  yet,  in  fifteen 
years  after  that  date,  it  was  almost  wholly  covered  with  a 
thrifty  growth  of  limber.  The  same  is  the  case  with  otlier 
places. 

The  following  statement  of  the  geological  structure  of  tJial 


6  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

portion  of  Illinois  known  as  the  militar}^  bounty  tract,  situated 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  is  extracted  from  a  volume 
called  "Illinois  in  1837."  As  it  is  apphcable  to  all  the  valley 
of  the  Upper  Missisippi,  with  very  slight  variations,  a  very 
accurate  idea  may  be  derived  from  it  of  the  structure  of  any 
portion  of  that  count^v^  In  Iowa  generally  the  vegetable 
mould  at  the  top  is  a  little  thicker  than  it  is  here  stated : — 

"  A  scientific  gentleman  who  has  recently  examined  the 
central  parts  of  the  Military  Bounty  Tract,  has  given  the 
following  as  the  geological  structure  of  the  upland  prairies 
in  that  region.  That  the  same  general  stmctiure  prevails 
throughout  the  entire  peninsula  (between  the  Illinois  and 
Missisippi  Rivers),  and  all  the  central  and  northern  parts  of 
the  State,  is  most  probable.  1st.  Vegetable  mould,  formed 
by  the  decomposition  of  grass  upon  the  original  clay  soil, 
eight  to  thirty  inches  :  2d,  piure  yellow  clay,  three  to  eight 
feet  :  3d,  gravelly  clay,  mixed  with  pebbles,  four  to  ten  feet : 
5th,  limestone  rock,  two  to  twelve  feet  :  5th,  shale,  covering 
a  stratum  of  bituminous  coal,  generally  four  to  five  feet 
thick :  6th,  soapstone  ;  then  sandstone.  The  bed  of  lime- 
stone seems  to  be  universal  in  this  region,  it  having  been 
discovered  in  all  the  w^ells  that  have  been  dug,  and  in  all  the 
banks  of  water-courses  of  any  magnitude." 

Although  no  part  of  this  region  can  with  propriety  be 
denominated  hilly,  yet  upon  the  Wisconsin,  Fox,  the  head 
waters  of  Rock  and  Milwaukie  Rivers,  the  country  is  consider- 
ably diversified  with  hills,  or  rather  swells,  and  valleys.  The 
only  hills  worthy  of  particular  notice,  not  only  in  this  vicinity, 
but  in  the  w^hole  section  under  consideration,  are  the  Ocooch 
and  Smoky  Mountains,  which  are  broad  and  elevated  ridges 
rather  than  mountains.  The  former  is  situated  about  twelve 
miles  north  of  the  Wisconsin,  one  hundred  miles  above  its 
mouth;  and  the  latter  about  forty  miles  south  of  the  portage 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


between  the  river  just  mentioned  and  Fox  River  of  Green 
Bay.  (Long's  Expedition,  v.  ii.,  p.  335.)  The  bhie  mounds, 
near  the  Wisconsin  ;  the  Platte  mounds,  near  Platteville  ; 
the  Pilot-knob,  near  Galena  ;  the  Table  mound,  three  miles 
south  of  Dubuque  ;  Sherald's  mound  and  Pike's  mountain, 
may  also  be  named  among  the  lesser  elevations  of  this 
region,  as  also  Sinsinewa  mound.  There  are  some  eleva- 
tions also  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Missisippi,  above  Lake 
Pepin ;  and,  in  fact,  on  both  sides  in  that  part  of  the  country. 
The  Coteau  des  Prairies  is  an  extensive  and  elevated  table- 
land, dividing  the  v^raters  which  flow  into  the  Missouri  from 
those  falling  into  the  St.  Peter's  and  Missisippi.  A  range 
of  highlands  extends  from  the  Ocooch,  on  the  Wisconsin,  to 
Lake  Superior,  supposed  by  Long  and  Dr.  James  to  be  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Ozark  mountains.  The  northern  section 
of  this  highland  usually  goes  under  the  name  of  Porcupine 
Hills. 

"  It  is  neither  a  mountainous,  nor  a  hilly,  nor  an  absolutely 
flat  country,"  says  Nicollet,  ''  exhibiting  undulations  of  the 
surface  that  are  not  entitled  to  these  usual  appellations. 
There  are  hillocks,  swells  and  uplands,  but  they  have  a  lon- 
gitudinal and  horizontal  rather  than  a  vertical  projection.  In 
other  words,  it  is  a  beautiful  arrangement  of  upland  and  low- 
land plains,  that  give  it  an  aspect  sui  generis.  The  first 
Frenchmen  who  explored  it,  and  the  British  and  Americans 
who  followed  them,  were  so  forcibly  impressed  with  this 
novelty  in  the  appearance  of  the  topography,  that  they 
employed  new  names  to  designate  it.  Hence  we  have  the 
expressions  coteau  des  j^rairies,  coteau  des  bois  [highland 
prairie,  highland  luoods],  hauteur  des  terres  [sununit  of  lajul], 
and  rolling,  flat,  or  marshy  prairies.  There  is  still  suflicient 
variety  in  the  irregularities  of  its  surface,  and  the  distribution 


8  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

of  the  water-courses,  woodlands  and    prairies,    to  bestow 
interest  and  value  upon  its  several  sub-divisions. 

"  The  basin  of  the  Upper  Missisippi  is  separated,  in  a 
great  part  of  its  extent,  from  that  of  the  Missouri,  by  an  ele- 
vated plain,  the  appearance  of  which,  seen  from  the  valley 
of  the  St.  Peter's,  or  that  of  the  Riviere  Jacques,  looming,  as 
it  were,  a  distant  shore,  has  suggested  for  it  the  name  of 
coteau  des  iirairies.  Its  more  appropriate  designation  would 
be  that  oi  plateau,  which  means  something  more  than  is  con- 
veyed to  the  mind  by  the  expression,  a  plain. 

"  Its  northern  extremity  is  in  lat.  46^,  extending  to  43^  ; 
after  which  it  loses  its  distinctive  elevation  above  the  sur- 
rounding plains,  and  passes  into  rolling  prairies.  Its  length 
is  about  two  hundred  miles,  and  its  general  direction  N.NW. 
and  S.SE.  Its  northern  termination  (called  '  tete  du  coteau' 
in  consequence  of  its  peculiar  configuration)  is  not  more  than 
fifteen  to  twenty  miles  across  ;  its  elevation  above  the  level 
of  the  Big  Stone  Lake  is  890  feet ;  and  above  the  ocean 
1,916  feet.  Starting  from  this  extremity  (that  is,  the  head 
of  the  coteau),  the  surface  of  the  plateau  is  undulating, 
forming  many  dividing  ridges,  which  separate  the  waters 
flowing  into  the  St.  Peter's  and  the  Missisippi  from  those 
of  the  Missouri 

"  Under  the  forty-fourth  degree  of  latitude  the  breadth  of 
the  coteau  is  about  forty  miles,  and  its  mean  elevation  is  here 
reduced  to  1,450  feet  above  the  sea.  Within  this  space  its 
two  slopes  are  rather  abrupt,  crowned  with  verdure,  and 
scolloped  by  deep  ravines  thickly  shaded  with  bushes,  form- 
nig  the  beds  of  rivulets  that  water  the  subjacent  plains.  The 
coteau  itself  is  isolated  in  the  midst  of  boundless  and  fertile 
prairies,  extending  to  the  west,  to  the  north,  and  into  the  val- 
ley of  the  St.  Peter's. 

"  The  plain,  at  its  northern  extremity,  is  a  most  beautiful 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  9 

tract  of  land,  diversified  by  hills,  dales,  woodland  and  lakes  : 
the  latter  al)ounding  in  iish.  The  region  of  country  is  pro- 
bably the  most  elevated  between  the  Cndf  of  Mexico  and 
Hudson's  Bay.  From  its  summit,  proceeding  from  its 
western  to  its  eastern  limits,  grand  views  are  aflbrded.  At 
its  eastern  border,  particularly,  the  prospect  is  magnificent 
beyond  description,  extending  over  the  immense  green  turf 
tliat  forms  the  basin  of  tlie  Red  River  of  the  North,  the 
forest-capped  summits  of  the  hauteurs  dcs  tcrres  that  sur- 
round the  sources  of  the  Missisippi,  the  gi'anite  valley  of  the 
Upper  St.  Peter's,  and  the  depressions  in  which  are  Lake 
Travers  and  the  Big  Stone  Lake. 

"  The  other  portions  of  the  coteau,  ascending  from  the 
lower  latitudes,  present  pretty  much  the  same  characters. 
This  dilference,  however,  is  remarkable  :  that  the  woodlands 
become  scarcer,  whilst  the  open  prairies  increase  in  extent. 
It  is  very  rarely  only  that  groves  are  met  with,  to  which  the 
N'dacotahs,  or  Sioux,  have  given  the  name  of  Tchan  Witah, 
or  Wood  Islands.  When  these  gi'oves  are  surrounded  by 
water,  they  assume  some  resemblance  to  oases,  and  hence  I 
have  assigned  this  name  to  some  of  them  on  my  map. 

"  These  oases,  possessed  of  a  good  soil,  well  wooded, 
ofTering  an  abundance  of  game,  and  waters  teeming  with  fish, 
otl'er  inducements  for  permanent  settlements.  In  this  region 
tiicrc  are  frequent  instances  of  a  marsh  or  lake  furnishing 
waters  to  diilerent  hydrographical  basins, — a  ftict  observed 
Ijy  the  Sioux,  and  which  they  express  m  the  compound  word 
of  iheir  dialect,  mini-ahipan-lxaduza ;* — from  mini,  water; 
akij)07i,  division,  share  ;  and  kaduzu,  to  flow,  to  run  out." 
[iVicollet,  pp.  7,  8,  9,  10.] 

*  Mr.  Nicollet  seems  to  mistake  the  application  of  the  phrase  mini- 
akipan-haduza.  Akipan  is  probably  a  ridge  of  land,  or,  as  the  white  set- 
tler calls  it,  in  the  very  word  of  the  Indians,  a  divide.     The  phrase  is  pro- 

2* 


10  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

The  country  from  Platte  River  to  Council  Bluffs  is  thus 
described  by  Nicollet  [p.  39,  et  seq.]  : — 

"  It  will  be  recollected  that  I  have  represented  the  whole 
bed  of  clay,  divided  into  two  portions  by  a  band  of  iron- 
stone, as  having  a  nearly  uniform  thickness  of  200  feet,  and 
tliat  it  is  intermixed  with  lumps  of  gypsum  and  limestone, 
together  with  nodules  of  pjTites  ;  so  that  a  soil,  produced 
from  such  materials,  could  hardly  be  expected  to  throw  up 
anything  but  a  meagre  vegetation.  It  is  of  a  character,  too, 
to  be  so  acted  upon  by  atmospheric  agents,  as  to  exliibit,  by 
the  wear  and  tear  of  its  superficial  portions,  every  variety 
of  fanciful  summits — domes,  cupolas,  tovrers,  colomiades, 
(fee;  imparting  to  it  a  remarkably  picturesque  appearance, 
especially  when  contrasted  with  the  dense  vegetation  that 
borders  the  river,  and  a  narrow  slip  of  prairies  crowning  the 
summits  of  the  hills  that  are  seen  to  extend  themselves  on 
either  side. 

"  The  same  physical  causes,  under  other  circumstances, 
produce  new  effects,  that  add  to  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of 
the  scenery.  Thus,  the  rains  furrow  and  cut  througli  the 
plastic  and  sclenifcrous  clay,  down  to  the  most  resisting 
limestone,  giving  rise  to  a  sort  of  advancing  platform,  with  a 
perpendicular  elevation  of  from  30  to  40  feet,  resembling  a 
succession  of  long  lines  of  parapets. 

"  But  I  have  now  reached  the  proper  place  to  treat  of  a 
very  interesting  phenomenon  observed  in  the  midst  of  this 
cretaceous  group.  It  manifests  itself  by  the  occasional 
appearance  of  a  dense  smoke  at  the  top  of  some  conical 
hill,  or  along  a  line  of  country  bounded  by  the  horizon,  so 

bably  applied  to  a  ridge,  and  not  to  a  marsh.  So  Nicollet  has  himself  ap- 
plied it  on  his  map  to  the  ridge  separating  the  waters  of  St.  Peter's  from 
those  of  the  Missisippi. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  11 

as  to  awaken  the  idea  of  distant  volcanoes  ;  hence  I  have 
chosen  to  call  them  pseudo-volcanoes 

"  The  smoke  from  these  hills  and  the  crevices  in  tlie 
plastic  clay  is  said  to  last  at  the  same  spot  for  a  long  time — 
say  two  or  three  years  ;  indicating  at  them  a  large  accumu- 
lation of  combustible  materials.  It  is  not,  to  my  knowledge, 
accompanied  by  luminous  vapors,  and  is  silently  waited 
along  die  valley  which  it  mournfully  shrouds.  The  observ- 
ance of  this  phenomenon,  associated  with  the  frequent 
recurrence  of  a  peculiar  light  and  spongy  stone  that  the 
Missouri  carries  down  and  strews  along  its  shores,  and 
whicli  has  been  mistaken  for  pumice-stone,  has  led  to  the 
often-controverted  opinion  that  there  was  a  volcanic  region 
on  the  Upper  Missouri.  There  are,  however,  no  true  volca- 
noes over  any  portion  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  ;  and  it  was  this  belief  that  led  me  to  the 
adoption  of  tlie  word  j)seudo-volca?2o.  Neither  is  the  sub- 
stance found  in  tlicse  regions,  and  commonly  called  pumice, 
a  true  pumice  ;  and,  by  a  similar  analogy  to  that  which  has 
prompted  tlic  name  of  its  probable  origin,  I  have  called  it  a 
pumiciform  stone  {roche  pumiciforme). 

"  Before  proceeding  to  account  for  the  appearances  and 
circumstances  attending  these  smoking  hills,  I  must  add  a 
few  more  facts  concerning  their  traditional  and  recorded 
history.  There  were  none  in  activity  when  I  ascended  the 
Missouri  in  lb39  ;  and  so  would  seem  to  have  been  the  case 
at  the  passage  of  Lewis  and  Clark  at  the  beginning  of  tliis 
century.  But,  previous  to  my  arrival,  since  the  memoral)le 
expedition  last  referred  to,  and  during  a  period  of  three 
years,  they  were  seen,  as  my  information  goes,  by  many  in- 
telligent persons  engaged  in  the  fur-trade,  all  of  wliom  are 
naturally  observant,  and  most  of  them  of  umpicsliunabK^ 
authority.     I  liave  no  doul)t,  tlierefore,  of  the  existence  of 


12  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

these  hills  ;  and,  in  truth,  upon  a  distance  of  130  miles  from 
Scalp  mountain  to  beyond  the  Karmichigah,  or  Great  Bend, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  but  a  black  zone,  known  to  the 
voyageurs  as  '  les  cotes  hruUes  ' — '  collines  brulees,^ — viz  : 
burnt  bluffs,  or  burnt  hills. 

*'  In  other  respects,  the  character  of  the  vegetation,  which 
is  always  scant  upon  this  zone,  indicates,  in  a  measure,  the 
epochs  when  it  was  visited  by  these  subterranean  fires  ;  the 
blacker  and  more  sterile  parts  being  the  most  recently  burnt. 
They  are  pointed  out  by  the  voyageurs,  and  I  have  indicated 
several  on  my  map.  The  fossil  shells,  that  I  have  preced- 
ingly  enumerated,  lose  their  brilliant  opalescent  appearance, 
and  are  partly  calcined,  though  still  preserving  their  specific 
distinctions.  Layers  of  the  clay  are  also  met  with,  so 
altered  as  almost  to  deserve  the  mineralogical  name  of  por- 
cellanite  ;  in  fact,  all  the  minerals  belonging  to  the  fonnation 
exhibit  the  alteration  which  might  be  supposed  produced  by 
exposure  to  that  sort  of  action  now  to  be  assigned. 

"  I  believe  that  these  pseudo-volcanic  phenomena  may  be 
compared  with  those  described  as  occurring  in  other  portions 
of  the  globe,  under  the  name  of  terrains  ardens ;  although 
they  are  not  here  accompanied  by  the  emission  of  flames. 
They  are  evidently  due  to  the  decomposition,  by  the  perco- 
lation of  atmospheric  waters  to  them,  of  beds  of  pyrites, 
which,  reacting  on  the  combustible  materials,  such  as  lignites 
and  other  substances  of  a  vegetable  nature  in  their  vicinity, 
give  rise  to  a  spontaneous  combustion  ;  whilst  further  reac- 
tions (well  understood  by  the  chemist)  upon  the  lime  con- 
tained in  the  clay  bed,  produce  the  masses  and  crystals  of 
selenite  tliat  are  observed  in  the  lower  portion  of  this  inter- 
esting deposit.  This  is  the  theory  which,  with  some  little 
confidence,  we  have  formed  of  these  pseudo-volcanoes. 

"  It  may  be  interesting  to  future   travellers   to   learn  that. 


inai 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  tS 

in  order  to  collect  both  fossils  and  most  interesting  spcci- 
ns  of  crystallized  selenite,  without  taking  the  troul)le  of 
making  diggings,  it  is  only  necessary  to  peranihulatc  the 
zone  of  plastic  clay  shortly  after  it  has  been  washed  by 
heavy  rains.  Under  such  circumstances,  should  they  be 
favored  moreover  by  the  reflections  of  the  sun,  they  will  be 
struck  with  the  appropriateness  of  the  designation  of  these 
hills,  as  applied  botli  by  the  voyageurs  and  Indians — name- 
ly, of  shining  inounlains.  In  truth,  it  is  not  unlikely  tliat 
these  hills,  a  portion  of  them  attaining  an  elevation  of  from 
500  to  700  feet  above  the  river,  were  some  of  those  referred 
to  by  the  Sioux  of  the  Missisippi,  who,  conversing  w^ith  the 
first  white  men  who  visited  them,  and  long  afterwards  with 
Capt.  Carver,  spoke  of  the  Shining  Mountains  of  the  West. 
"  These  (so  named)  pseudo-volcanoes  are  not,  however, 
confined  to  the  valley  of  the  Missouri.  Traces  of  them  are 
not  unfrequently  found  over  tlic  more  westerly  regions,  as 
far  as  the  upper  portions  of  the  rivers  called  by  the  Indians 
Manki zi tail  a.nd  Washtey.  The  name  o(  Mankizitah-toatpaj 
usually  translated  by  that  of  "  White-earth-river"  (or  simply 
White  river),  means,  more  properly.  Smoking  Earth  river ; 
w^hence  I  have  concluded  that  tlicse  indications  of  pseudo- 
volcanoes  were  at  the  same  time  evidences  of  the  recurrence 
of  the  upper  members  of  the  cretaceous  formation,  the  limit 
of  which  I  have  assigned  as  being  somewhere  eastward  of 
the  Black  Hills.  The  name  of  *  Mnuvaises  Terres'  (bad 
lands)  has  been  applied  to  districts  cut  up  into  deep  and  in- 
tricate chasms,  from  which  the  traveller  could  liardly  liope 
to  extricate  himself  witliout  the  assistance  of  a  good  guide, 
and  that  are  doubtless  due  to  the  burning  out  of  their 
pseudo-volcanoes . 

"  However  this  may  be,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
region  of  country  (hained  by  these  rivers  which  I  have  last 


14  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

mentioned,  will  present  a  wide  and  fertile  field  of  discovery 
to  any  geologist  whose  good  luck  it  may  be  to  give  it  a 
thorough  exploration.  For  there  he  will  find  an  opportunity 
not  only  of  studying  the  continuation  of  the  secondary 
cretaceous  formation  previously  described,  but  likewise  of 
discovering  the  approach  to  a  tertiary  formation ;  the  equiva- 
lents of  which  are  doubtless  to  be  found  to  the  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  as  they  have  already  been  to  the  east,  on 
the  Atlantic  borders." 

This  country  is  probably  one  of  the  most  remarkable  on 
the  earth,  for  the  variety  and  abundance  of  its  mineral  de- 
posits, and  especially  for  those  which  are  of  most  extensive 
use  in  the  arts.  The  sulphuret  of  lead  occupies  about  one 
degree  of  latitude,  extending  north  from  a  point  on  the  Mis- 
sisippi,  some  eight  miles  below  Galena,  and  lying  on  both 
sides,  varying  in  width  till  it  covers  as  great  an  extent  from 
east  to  west.  On  the  east  side  of  the  river  the  mineral  is 
found  principally  in  a  clay  matrix,  at  a  depth  of  sometimes 
only  five  or  six  feet  from  the  surface  ;  on  the  west  side  of 
the  river  it  runs  at  the  depth  of  one  hundred  feet  or  more, 
overlaid  with  magnesian  limestone.  To  the  south-west  of 
the  lead  deposit  is  a  very  abundant  bed  of  iron,  extending 
from  the  Maquoqucla  River  south  and  west  to  the  Wabesepi- 
nicon,  in  the  counties  of  Jackson  and  Clinton,  in  Iowa.  The 
extent  of  this  mineral  deposit  is  not  known,  but  is  proba- 
bly forty  miles  or  more  northeast  and  southwest,  with  a 
breadth  not  less  than  twenty  or  thirty  miles.  The  copper 
region  extends  north  from  the  lead  deposits  to  Lake  Superior. 
Its  precise  limits  are  not  known,  l)ut  it  embraces  about 
800  miles  square ;  it  is  found  south  of  latitude  48°, 
iii  large  quantities,  and  beyond  47*^  north.  From  cast  to 
west  it  has  an  equal  extent,  being  found  \\\  situ  on  Bhie 
Earth  river,  west  of  the  Missisippi,  in  94'^,  and  east  as  far  as 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  15 

between  88°  and  89^^.  Probably  in  nearly  the  whole  tract 
between  the  Rivers  Wisconsin  and  St.  Croix,  and  the  Missi- 
sippi  and  Lake  Superior,  it  is  very  abundant. 

To  the  south  of  the  lead  region,  that  is,  on  Rock  River, 
on  the  east,  and  south  of  the  Wabcscpinicon,  on  the  west  of 
the  Missisippi,  is  a  vast  bed  of  bituminous  coal  (called  by 
Owen  the  great  Illinois  coal  field),  of  a  good  quality,  at  no 
great  distance  below  the  surface.  The  country  is  principally 
of  magncsian  limestone  formation.  The  rock  is,  for  the  most 
part,  covered  with  several  successive  layers  of  clay,  each  of 
the  depth  of  many  feet,  and  is  generally  not  found  in  digging 
the  wells  of  greatest  depth.  At  the  bluffs  of  the  Missisip- 
pi, however,  and  on  some  other  streams,  it  outcrops.  The 
superstrata  of  clay  are  covered  with  a  pure  vegetable  mould, 
unmixed  with  other  matters,  of  a  depth  from  eight  or  ten 
inclies  to  three  feet  or  more.  In  some  localities,  as  at  Iowa 
City,  are  deposits  of  a  fine  madrepore  or  encrinitic  marble. 
The  country  has  not  yet  been  explored  sufficiently  to  inform 
us  to  what  extent  these  abound,  nor  how  great  a  variety  of 
minerals  it  contains.  Mineral  salt,  and  saltpetre,  are  to  be 
considered  among  them. 

The  country  has  about  all  the  varieties  of  forest  trees 
common  to  the  same  latitudes  on  this  continent  ;  including 
five  or  six  species  of  oak,  the  walnuts,  ashes,  maples,  elms, 
hickories,  locusts,  mulberries,  aspens,  and  poplars,  one  vari- 
ety of  which  is  very  abundant,  known  as  the  cotton  wood, 
&c.  There  are  very  few  birches,  and  the  writer  has  not 
seen  any  beeches  or  chestnuts.  Of  wild  plums,  the  varieties 
are  almost  endless  ;  many  of  them  are  good,  some  nearly 
equal  to  the  best  cultivated  plums,  some  indifferent.  Iron- 
wood  is  abundant  on  tlic  bottoms. 

The  prickly  ash,  hawthorn,  grape,  and  gooseberry,  are 
among  the  shrubs  and   vines.     The  vegetation  is  not  only 


16  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

varied  according  to  the  latitudes,  but  by  the  respective  situa- 
tions of  bottom  and  upland.  But  the  vegetation  of  the  Mis- 
sisippi  and  Missouri  rivers,  on  the  same  parallel,  does  not 
appear  to  vary  much.  On  the  east  of  the  Missisippi  the  coni- 
ferse  are  found  in  a  lower  latitude  than  to  the  west  of  it. 
Nicollet  says,  in  reporting  the  characteristics  of  the  country, 
in  his  progress  up  the  Missouri : — 

"  From  the  mouth  of  the  Platte  River  the  forests  are  nar- 
rower. The  principal  trees  are  the  American  and  red  elm, 
the  soft  maple,  Canadian  poplar,  white  and  red  ash  ;  the  most 
common  undergrovrth,  horse-briar,  fox  and  false  grapes,  red 
root,  grey  dogwood,  currant,  and  gooseberry,  with  shrubs  and 
dense  rushes  along  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  same  trees 
and  shrubs  grow  on  the  numerous  islands  that  are  generally 
bordered  with  black  and  long-leaved  willows.  In  the  higher 
situations,  and  at  the  head  of  creeks,  we  meet  Avith  the  black 
walnut  and  mulberry,  bass-wood,  nettle-wood,  intermingled 
with  the  common  hawthorn,  prickly  ash,  &c.  On  the  high 
grassy  or  rocky  banks,  the  black  and  bur  oaks  constitute  the 
principal  growth,  but  occasionally  intermixed  with  the  wild 
cherry,  red  cedar,  hornbeam,  wild  roses,  and  sumach.  The 
low  prairies  bordering  the  rivers  have  a  deep  fertile  soil,  and 
abound  with  sedge-grasses  and  leguminous  plants.  Finally, 
taking  a  pictorial  view  of  the  country,  the  verdure  of  its 
hills  and  prairies  affords  a  pleasing  contrast  with  the  naked 
sand-bars  in  the  rivers. 

"  I  have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  the  vegetation  of 
this  part  of  the  country,  not  only  as  a  feature  in  its  pliysical 
geography,  but  as  a  point  of  comparison  with  the  more 
northerly  regions  which  I  have  yet  to  describe." — Nic,  p.  30. 

The  most  important  vegetable,  native  to  this  region,  on 
account  of  its  use  as  well  as  its  abundance,  is  a  grain  called 
wild  rice,  by  some  of  the  Indians,  malomini,  or  menomoni. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  17 

It  is  similar  to  the  rice  of  the  southern  States,  if  not  the 
same  ;  is  a  principal  article  of  food  among  some  of  the  na- 
tions residing  here,  and  gave  the  name  to  a  tribe  that,  for  the 
most  part,  subsisted  on  it.  There  are  also,  it  is  said,  the 
wild  potato,  and  wild  onion,  found  here.  The  former,  as  the 
WTitcr  was  informed  by  Le  Claire,  late  interpreter  to  the  Sac 
and  Fox  Indians,  gave  the  name  to  the  Wabcscpinicon  river : 
Wabc-se-pin,  potato,  or  white  potato,  icon,  abode,  or  resi- 
dence. There  is  a  piece  of  prairie  also,  some  miles  north  of 
that  river,  called,  by  the  French,  Pomme  de  terre  (or  potato) 
prairie.  Some  of  the  streams  arc  supposed  to  have  derived 
their  names  from  the  wild  onion.  Chicago,  or  Chicagua, 
anything  with  a  strong  smell,  is  the  name  applied  to  this 
vegetable,  and  to  the  skunk.  The  sun-flower,  the  artichoke, 
and  the  resin  plant,  grow  abundantly  in  places. 

Mr.  Doty,  in  a  letter  to  Gov.  Cass,  says  tlie  wabessepin 
resembles  a  potato,  is  mealy  when  boiled,  and  grows  only  in 
wet  clay  ground,  about  one  and  a  half  feet  deep.  The  crane 
potato,  called  sitchauc-wabcssepin,  is  of  the  same  kind,  but 
inferior  in  quality.  The  Indians  use  these  for  food,  as  well  as 
the  menomini,  and  another  long  and  slender  root  called  wa- 
tappinee.  Probably  it  is  the  first  of  these  that  is  referred 
to  by  Nicollet,  in  the  following  extract,  as  the  prairie 
turnip  : — "  The  future  inhabitants  of  this  region,  among  its 
most  interesting  specimens  of  vegetation,  will  find,  as  trees, 
the  American  and  red  ehn,  lime  tree,  bur  oak,  white  ash, 
ash-leaved  maple,  nettle  tree,  large  American  aspen ;  as 
shrubs,  the  hazel,  red  root,  pcterswort,  &c. ;  as  herbs,  alum- 
root, tufted  and  American  vetch,  wood  sorrel,  sedge  and  pas- 
ture grasses. 

*'  The  intermediate  prairies  are  characterized  by  small 
depressions,  filled  with  rough  grasses,  and  bordered  by  the 
Canadian  cinquefoil,  the  germander,  southern  lily,  and  but- 


18  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

ton  snake-root.  Extensive  beds  of  the  Virginia  strawberry 
are  frequently  met  with  in  low  places  ;  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Salinas,  a  species  of  clover  called  buffalo  clover.  On  the 
arid  slopes  is  the  pink  milk  vetch,  inhabited  by  millions  of 
Spanish  flies.  Sandbrakes  are  generally  full  of  mustard  and 
dwarf  amaranths  ;  whilst  the  stony-grassy  borders  are  fring- 
ed with  dense  bushes  of  the  mimosa  tribe  and  long-leaved 
willows.  Finally,  all  the  high  prairies  abound  with  the 
silver-leaved  psoralia,  which  is  the  prairie  turnip  of  the 
Americans,  the  pomme  des  prairies  of  the  Canadians,  and 
furnishes  an  invaluable  food  to  the  Indians." 

Of  grasses,  the  growth  is  very  luxuriant  and  various. 
Fitted  for  the  abode  of  the  innumerable  herds  of  buffalo 
that  formerly  roamed  over  it  in  divided  empire  with  the  In- 
dian, this  country  aff'ords  perhaps  the  best  pasture,  whether 
natural  or  artificial,  on  the  earth.  Many  of  the  varieties  of 
the  English  cultivated  grasses  are  found  here.  The  fox  tail, 
the  crow  foot,  and  the  oat  grass  are  native  here.  On  the 
bottoms  is  a  very  luxuriant  grass,  growing  on  a  round  stem 
or  culm,  eight  to  nine  feet  high,  which  cattle  eat  with  avidi- 
ty. There  is  also  a  sweet  scented  grass,  having  nearly  the 
smell  of  savory.  On  all  the  upland  prairie  is  a  very  nour- 
ishing grass,  growing  from  two  to  three  feet,  which  furnishes 
the  winter  food  for  cattle  and  horses.  This  grass  is  exceed- 
ing good,  both  for  summer  and  winter  food,  and  both  for  beef 
and  butter.  The  latter  article  in  the  prairie  country  of  Iowa 
is  unusually  sweet  and  delicious. 

The  buffalo  and  beaver,  formerly  abundant,  at  the  discovery 
of  the  country,  have  withdrawn.  The  former  are  now  west 
of  the  Missouri  River.  A  few  beaver  may  perhaps  occasion- 
ally be  found  in  the  more  remote  parts  of  tlie  country,  in  the 
highest  latitude.  The  elk  is  yet  on  the  border  settlements  in 
Iowa  :  the  deer  is  very  abundant.     To  the  west,  toward  the 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  19 

mountains,  is  a  small  horse  which  llic  Indians  take  and  use 
under  their  rudely  made  saddles.  The  prairie  wolf  is  very 
numerous.  At  about  ten  miles  from  Jackson  County  seat, 
on  the  travelled  mail  road  to  Dubuque,  and  fifteen  miles  from 
this  last,  the  writer  once  passed  seven  of  these  animals  in 
company,  at  another  time  three.  The  panther  is  occasionally 
seen.  The  lynx  more  frequently.  Of  these,  the  writer  once 
saw  three  at  a  time.  There  arc  some  badgers.  The  raccoon 
is  very  numerous  ;  and,  next  to  the  wolf,  most  destructive  to 
tlie  domestics  of  the  farm-yard.  Bears,  and  some  cats  are 
found  in  parts  of  the  country.  The  rabbit  is  very  abundant. 
Foxes  do  not  inhabit,  so  far  as  known  to  the  writer,  any  part 
of  this  country.  The  skunk  is  not  often  met.  In  grounds 
appropriate  to  their  residence,  the  muskrat  are  abundant. 
The  gophar  is  an  animal  very  singular  in  his  appearance. 
He  is  twice  the  size  of  a  common  rat,  mouse-colored,  having 
a  large  pouch  on  either  side  of  the  head.  His  feeble  bark  or 
squeal  may  sometimes  be  heard  in  riding  along  the  prairie, 
which  is  very  closely  studded  Avith  his  conical  house-top, 
standing  above  the  surface,  much  resembling  ant-hills.  All 
the  varieties  of  squirrels  inhabit  here,  and  there  is  a  field 
mouse  of  a  larger  size  than  the  common  animal  of  that  name 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent.  The  weasel  is  occasion- 
ally found,  and  there  is  a  small  animal,  striped  like  the  little 
striped  sciuirrel,  living  in  the  prairie,  having  a  long  body  and 
tail  and  very  short  legs,  which  is  commonly  known  there  as 
the  prairie  squirrel,  though  I  think  he  is  of  the  weasel  tribe, 
having  more  resemblance  to  this  animal  in  form  th;ui  to  the 
squirrel.  This  creature  and  the  gophar  are  very  destructive 
to  the  corn-fields,  and  compel  the  farmer  frequently  to  plant 
his  corn  twice  and  three  times. 

The  wild  turkey  is  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  wooded 
bottom  lands  ;  the  prairie  hen  is  frequently  seen  by  hundreds 


20  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

in  the  prairie.  The  hawk,  buzzard,  eagle,  owl,  and  a  small 
paroquet,  and  several  varieties  of  woodpeckers,  are  met  oc- 
casionally. The  w^oodcock,  snipe,  and  quail,  are  abundant. 
There  is  a  very  peculiar  bird  inhabiting  the  wet  prairies  and 
marshes,  about  the  size  of  the  prairie  hen,  and  having  a  close 
resemblance  in  color  and  shape ;  the  principal  difference  being 
in  a  longer  neck,  and  a  bill  of  very  peculiar  construction.  It 
is  some  nine  or  ten  inches  in  length  and  bent  over  at  the  end 
like  a  sickle,  the  hooked  part  being  from  one  to  two  inches 
long.  The  swan  and  pelican  are  seen  occasionally  on  the 
Missisippi,  in  the  latitude  of  the  lower  rapids.  Farther  north 
and  west  they  are  believed  to  be  more  abundant.  To  one  of 
the  lakes  in  the  north-west  the  Indians  have  given  an  appel- 
lation which  signifies  "the  place  where  the  pelicans  nestle." 
Geese  and  ducks  are  very  abundant  on  some  of  the  water- 
courses ;  and  occasionally  a  gull,  similar  to  the  saltwater-gull, 
is  seen.  The  small,  slender-legged  bird,  with  a  shrill,  mourn- 
ful note,  which  is  found  running  about  the  shores  and  marshes 
near  the  sea,  in  the  east,  commonly  called  the  peewit,  is  here. 
Robins,  sparrows,  swallows,  and  the  other  small  birds  com- 
mon to  the  east,  are  also  inhabitants  of  this  region. 

Of  reptiles,  the  Upper  Missisippi  cannot  be  said  to  be 
very  prolific ;  though  in  some  localities  this  division  of  ani- 
mated nature  is  sufficiently  represented.  The  varieties  are, 
the  great  yellow  rattlesnake,  the  prairie  rattlesnake  (called  by 
the  Indians  massasauga,  great  adder),  the  copperhead,  the 
bull  snake,  the  milk  snake,  the  black  snake,  the  moccasin ; 
and  in  the  rivers  the  water-moccasin,  with  a  number  of  small 
adders.  There  is  one  of  this  tribe  called  tlie  death-adder, 
said  to  be  as  fatal  as  the  copperhead  or  rattlesnake.  The 
writer  saw  one  specimen  of  an  miknown  and  very  peculiar 
kind  of  snake.  It  was  in  the  road  about  one  mile  back  from 
the  river,  at  the  foot  of  the  lower  rapids.     Its  length  was  ap- 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  21 

parently  not  over  fifteen  inches,  its  diameter  one  and  a  quarter 
or  one  and  a  lialf  inches,  square,  not  round,  its  color  a  dull 
yellow  or  buff,  with  one  or  two  darker  but  faint  lines  drawn 
upon  it.  At  the  distance  of  about  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  extreme  point  of  the  tail  the  sciuare  shape  of  the  body 
abruptly  terminated,  like  a  stick  notched,  and  cut  down  so  as 
to  describe  a  circle  on  tlic  end  of  the  parallelogram,  and  from 
thence  it  was  a  regular  cone  to  the  point.  Having  sat  upon 
my  horse  and  viewed  it  for  some  time,  I  was  satisfied  that  its 
motion  and  mode  of  attack  nnist  be  very  different  from  the 
common  varieties  of  the  snake  ;  as,  though  it  wriggled  like 
the  worm,  it  made  no  perceptible  advance,  and  I  inferred, 
from  its  lack  of  longitude,  that  it  could  not  make  much  pro- 
gress in  the  common  way.  Upon  reference  to  Shaw,  Dr. 
Goldsmith,  Fleming,  and  other  writers  on  Zoology,  I  can  find 
no  description  of  this  very  singular  animal.  Dr.  Morse,  in 
his  Geography,  does  not  notice  it. 

Beside  the  coluber,  and  the  toad,  and  frog,  and  turtle,  and 
the  common  worms,  reptiles  are  not  numerous. 

The  people  inhabiting  this  country  are  the  Menominis  or 
Malominis,  the  Potawatomies,  the  Winnebagoes,  Chippewas, 
Dahcotahs  (called  by  the  French  Sioux),  and  Sacs  and  Foxes : 
this  last  band  is  always  called,  by  their  own  people,  Musk- 
waka.  The  Sacs  call  themselves  Saki.  Beside  these  there 
are  several  thousand  eastern  Indians  removed  from  New 
York,  who  inhabit  the  northeastern  part  of  Wisconsin,  near 
Lake  Michioan. 


RIVERS. 

The  Missisippi  and  Missouri,  the  principal  rivers  of  this 
country,  are  well  known.  The  Missouri,  rising  in  a  moun- 
tain region,  flows  with  a  rapid  current,  about  four  miles  an 


22  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

hour,  is  very  turbid  and  muddy,  and  is  subject  to  a  great  rise. 
Three  times,  since  the  country  was  known  to  the  whites,  it 
has  risen  thirty  or  forty  feet  above  the  usual  high-water 
mark.  The  last  rise  was  in  the  summer  of  1844,  and  was 
very  disastrous,  overwhelming  the  whole  bottom  country 
between  the  bluffs.  The  Missisippi,  rising  from  lakes  in  the 
midst  of  a  champaign,  and  flowing  through  a  similar  region, 
and  over  a  wide  bed,  from  bluff  to  bluff,  has  a  slower  current, 
generally  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  miles  an  hour,  is  a  clear, 
limpid  stream,  and  is  rarely  known  to  rise  more  than  ten  feet. 
In  the  spring  of  1844,  however,  it  had  a  rise  of  fifteen  feet  or 
more.  The  Missi-sippi,  or,  according  to  other  Indian  dia- 
lects, Massi-sepo  (so  the  Musquakas  speak  it),  great  river,  is  in 
length,  as  given  by  Mr.  Nicollet,  the  latest  and  most  accurate 
authority,  in  his  report  to  Congress  (p.  125),  2,896  miles, 
reckonincr  to  its  "  utmost  sources  at  the  summit  of  the  hauteurs 
de  terre,  or  dividing  ridge  between  the  Missisippi  and  the 
Red  River  of  the  North."  From  this  point  to  the  mouth  of 
Leech  Lake  River  is  221  miles  ;  to  Wanomon  or  Vermillion 
River,  248  ;  to  the  head  of  the  Kabikons,  or  Little  Falls,  269 ; 
to  the  mouth  of  Kagi-wigwan  (Crow-wing)  River,  515  ;  to 
the  Karishon  (Crow)  River,  667  ;  to  the  mouth  of  St.  Peter's, 
704  ;  St.  Croix,  746  ;  upper  end  of  Lake  Pepin,  781  ;  Chip- 
peway  River,  810;  Black  River,  861  ;  Upper  Iowa,  918; 
Wisconsin,  970  ;  head  of  tlie  Upper  Rapids  (Rock  River 
Rapids),  1159;  head  of  the  Lower  Rapids  (Des  Moins), 
1287;  Illinois  River,  1470;  Ohio  River,  1680;  from  thence 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  1216.  Rock  River  comes  into 
the  Missisippi  on  the  east,  about  nineteen  miles  below  the 
head  of  the  Upper  Rapids.  The  Lower  Iowa  River  enters 
on  the  west,  al)out  forty-five  miles  below  Rock  River; 
and  the  Moingonan,  or  Des  Moins,  about  fifteen  miles  below 
the  head  of  the  Lower   Rapids.     These  rapids  extend  about 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  23 

eleven  miles  upon  the  river  ;  llie  upper  rapids  are  about  fifteen 
miles  in  Icngtli.  Mr.  Schoolcnift,  wiio  considered,  as  did 
Nicollet,  the  Lake  Itasca  to  be  the  source,  computed  the 
whole  length  of  the  river  at  3,1(30  nules,  or  264  more  than 
Nicollet.  This,  probably,  was  occasioned  by  the  addition 
of  estimates  not  very  accurate  from  point  to  point  upon  the 
river,  founded  upon  the  reckoning  of  the  boatmen. 

Major  Long,  wlio  measured  the  height  of  the  falls  of  St. 
Anthony  with  a  plumb-line,  in  1^17,  states  it  to  be  sixteen 
and  a  half  feet.  In  this  he  agrees  with  Pike,  who  visited  it 
twelve  years  before  liim.  Carver  called  it  tliirty  feet.  Hen- 
nepin, the  first  European  wlio  saw  and  named  it,  in  1680, 
says  it  is  fifty  or  sixty  feet  higli.  For  reasons  hereafter 
mentioned,  in  tlic  liistorical  part  of  these  notes,  full  reliance 
cannot  be  placed  on  Henepin.  It  may  be,  however,  that  the 
ponderous  body  of  water  is  gradually  wearing  away  the  stone 
which  makes  the  bed  of  the  river  before  it  falls,  and  that  thus 
the  height  is  constantly  diminishing  ;  or,  by  the  falling  of  the 
stone,  and  the  consequent  receding  of  the  fall,  the  same 
effect  might  be  produced.  It  is  stated,  by  Nicollet,  I  think, 
that  in  a  half  mile  the  whole  fall  is  seventy-five  feet. 

In  relation  to  the  recession  of  the  falls,  and  the  whole 
descent  of  the  water,  i\Ir.  Keating  says  : — "  The  river  (Mis- 
sisippi)  runs  upon  a  bed  of  sandy  alluvion,  resulting  from  the 
destruction  of  the  blulTs,  but  in  many  places  the  rock  is  laid 
bare.  These  observations  upon  the  geology  of  the  bluff  upon 
which  the  fort  is  erected  correspond  with  those  made  at  the 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  with  this  exception,  that,  at  the  latter 
place,  our  observations  are  limited  to  the  three  superior 
strata,  viz  :  the  slaty  limestone,  with  organic  remains  ;  the 
blue  limestone,  destitute  of  these  ;  and  the  sandstone,  with  a 
loose  texture.  The  falls  are  occasioned  by  the  fissures  which 
occur  in  the  superior  limestone,  and  which  allow  the  water  to 


34  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

penetrate  through  this  bed  to  the  sandstone,  which,  being  of 
a  loose  texture,  is  soon  washed  away ;  in  this  manner,  thick 
plates  of  limestone  are  left  unsupported,  and  soon  fall  by 
their  own  gravity.  This  process  is  constantly  causing  the 
fall  to  recede  towards  its  source.  What  time  has  been 
required,  what  lapse  of  centuries  has  been  consumed,  in 
bringing  the  falls  to  their  present  situation,  it  is  not  in  the 
power  of  man  to  decide  ;  but  w^e  may  well  see  that  it  must 
have  been  immense.  The  difference  of  level  at  the  head  of 
tlie  fall  and  the  level  of  the  river  at  the  fort  being  estimated 
at  about  one  hundred  feet,  and  the  strata  running  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  we  can  readily  account  for  the  additional 
strata  observed  under  the  sandstone  at  the  fort,  and  which 
arc  concealed  at  the  falls."  [Long's  2d  Exped.,  v.  i.,  p.  309.] 

By  the  Sioux  tliese  falls  are  called  Rara,  from  Irara,  to 
laugh  (or,  perhaps,  Irara,  which,  quickly  spoken,  would 
sound  Rara).  The  Chippewas  call  them  Kakabikah,  severed 
rock. 

Major  Long  tells  a  romantic  story  in  connection  with  these 
falls.  It  is  thus  : — An  Indian  of  the  Dacota  nation  had 
united  himself  in  his  youth  to  a  female  called  Ampato  Sapa, 
the  Dark  Day,  a  name  which,  if  given  at  her  birth,  and  not 
afterward  bestowed  in  allusion  to  her  unfortunate  end,  would 
seem  to  show  that  these  people  possess  the  power  of  divina- 
tion. They  lived  happily  together  many  years.  Two  clul- 
dren  were  the  fruit  of  their  union.  The  man,  having  ac- 
quired renown  as  a  hunter,  aspired  to  be  elected  a  chief. 
To  increase  his  dignity  and  importance,  and  to  strengthen 
his  influence,  he  resolved  to  add  another  wife  to  his  house- 
hold, and  fixed  his  choice  on  the  daughter  of  a  man  of  influ- 
ence in  the  tribe.  When  he  made  known  his  determination 
to  his  wife,  she  endeavored  to  dissuade  him,  by  reminding 
him  of  their  long-cherished  love,  and  the  happiness  they  had 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  25 

enjoyed  togellier.  Finding  no  arguments  available,  and,  in 
fact,  that  he  had  already  executed  his  purpose  "of  a  second 
marriage,  she  observed  her  opportunity,  launched  her  light 
bark  canoe,  and  placing  her  children  in  it,  pushed  off  into  the 
stream  above  tlie  fall.  Her  death  song  was  heard,  clear  and 
shrill,  by  her  friends  upon  the  banks  of  the  river.  She 
recited,  with  a  mournful  voice,  the  pleasure  she  had  enjoyed 
when  the  undivided  object  of  her  Inisband's  affection.  As 
she  fell  faster  and  faster  down  the  current,  her  voice  became 
lost  in  the  sound  of  the  cataract.  Her  boat  was  borne  to  the 
edge  of  the  cascade,  was  seen  for  a  moment  in  the  spray  and 
mist  that  hovered  over  the  water,  and  disappeared,  to  be  seen 
no  more.  'I'he  Indians  say  tiiat,  often,  in  the  morning,  a 
voice  is  heard  singing  a  mournful  requiem,  the  burden  of 
which  is  the  inconstancy  of  her  husband.  And  some  assert 
that  the  spirit  of  Anipato  Sapa  has  been  seen  wandering 
about  the  place  with  her  children  in  her  ])osom. 

For  a  description  of  the  head-waters  and  superior  course  of 
the  Missisippi,  I  quote  Mr.  Nicollet,  the  most  recent,  the 
most  accurate,  the  most  lively,  and  the  most  graphic  descrip- 
tion given  of  this  stream. 

"  The  Missisippi  holds  its  own  from  its  very  origin  ;  for  it 
is  not  necessary  to  suppose,  as  has  been  done,  that  Lake 
Itasca  may  be  supplied  with  invisible  sources,  to  justify  the 
character  of  a  remarkable  stream,  which  it  assumes  at  its 
issue  from  this  lake.  There  are  five  creeks  that  fall  into  it, 
formed  by  uuuunerablc  streamlets  oozing  from  the  clay  beds 
at  the  bases  of  the  hills,  that  consist  of  an  accunndation  of 
sand,  gravel,  and  clay,  intermixed  with  erratic  fragments, 
being  a  more  prominent  portion  of  the  great  erratic  deposit 
previously  described,  and  which  here  is  known  by  the  name 
of  hauteurs  des  terres — heights  of  land. 

"  These  elevations  are  conmionly  flat  at  top,  varying  in 

3 


0( 


NOTES    on    THE    NOKTKV/EST. 


height  from  85  to  100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surround 
ing  waters.  They  are  covered  with  thick  forests,  in  which 
the  coniferous  plants  predominate.  South  of  Itasca  Lake 
they  form  a  semicircular  region  with  a  boggy  bottom,  ex- 
tendinjT  to  the  southwest  a  distance  of  several  miles  ;  thence 
these  hauteurs  des  terres  ascend  to  the  northwest  and  north, 
and  then  stretching  to  tlie  northeast  and  east,  through  the 
zone  between  47°  and  48^  of  latitude,  make  the  dividing 
ridge  between  the  waters  that  empty  into  Hudson  Bay  and 
those  which  discharge  themselves  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

"  The  waters  supplied  by  the  north  flank  of  these  heights 
of  land,  still  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Itasca,  give  origin  to 
the  five  creeks  of  which  I  have  spoken  above.  These  are 
the  waters  which  I  consider  to  be  the  utmost  soiurces  of  the 
Missisippi.  Those  that  flow  from  the  southern  side  of  the 
same  heights,  and  empty  themselves  into  Elbow  Lake,  are 
the  utmost  sources  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  so  that 
the  most  remote  feeders  of  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  are  closely  approximated  to  each  other." — Nic.  Rep., 
p.  57,  et  seq. 

The  principal  creek  of  the  five  above-mentioned  feeders  of 
Lake  Itasca  comes  into  the  east  bay  of  the  lake,  and  is  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  wide,  and,  at  the  time  of  Nicollet's  visit, 
two  or  three  feet  deep.  This  he  considers  the  infant  Missi- 
sippi. Mr.  Nicollet  went  up  this  stream  three  or  four  miles, 
and  thus  describes  it : — 

"  As  a  further  description  of  these  head-waters,  I  may  add 
that  they  unite  at  a  small  distance  from  the  hills  whence  they 
originate,  and  form  a  small  lake,  from  which  the  Missisippi 
flows  with  a  l^readth  of  a  foot  and  a  half,  and  a  depth  of  one 
foot.  At  no  great  distance,  however,  this  rivulet,  uniting 
itself  with  other  streamlets  coming  from  other  directions,  sup- 
plies a  second  minor  lake,  the  waters  of  winch  have  already 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRArilV.  27 

acquired  a  lompcraliirc  of  48*^.  From  tliis  lake  issues  a 
rivulet,  necessarily  of  increased  ini})orlance — a  cradled  Her- 
cules, giving  promise  of  the  strength  of  his  maturity  ;  for  its 
velocity  has  increased  ;  it  transports  the  smaller  branches  of 
trees  ;  it  begins  to  form  sand-bars ;  its  bends  are  more 
decided,  until  it  subsides  again  into  the  basin  of  a  third  lake, 
somewhat  larger  than  the  two  preceding.  Having  thus  ac- 
quired renew^ed  vigor,  and  tried  its  consequence  upon  an 
additional  length  of  two  or  throe  miles,  it  finally  empties  into 
Itasca  lake,  which  is  the  principal  reservoir  of  all  the  sources 
to  which  it  owTs  all  its  subsc([uent  majesty." — Nic.  Rep., 
p.  58. 

"  For  the  first  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  the  bed  of  the 
river  contracts  or  dilates,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
shores.  Its  navigation  is  greatly  impeded  by  erratic  rocks, 
trunks  of  fallen  and  decayed  trees,  as  well  as  impending 
branches  of  living  ones,  and  rapids,  which,  in  proportion  to  the 
changes  of  level  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  carried  along  our  frail 
canoe  with  the  rapidity  of  an  arrow,  or  left  us,  when  wanting, 
in  perfect  repose.  I  may  remark  here,  that,  on  this  river, 
like  all  those  of  this  region  of  country,  where,  on  the  narrow- 
ing of  the  valley,  there  grows  nothing  but  willows  and  aquatic 
plants  on  the  shores,  with  a  fine  sand  at  bottom,  its  bed  is 
peopled  with  innumerable  shells,  especially  iinios  and  ano- 
dontcB.     So  far,  I  saw  not  a  solitary  fish." — Nic.  Rep.,  p.  60. 

At  fifty  miles  below  Lake  Itasca  the  river  acquires  a 
greatly-increased  width.     I  give  again    the    words    of   Mr. 

Nicollet  : — 

''  At  this  stage  of  its  progress,  the  Missisippi  river  is  wide, 
winding  itself  in  large  folds,  as  if  to  take  masterly  possession 
of  the  country  ;  whilst  its  waters  arc  enlivened  by  ininimer- 
able  flocks  of  wild  fowl.  Then  comes  another  contraction  of 
the   river,   whicli   soon    opens   again,   and   extends  itself  to 


28  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Peinidji-gomag,  or  Pe7nidji  Lake,  sometimes  called  Lake  Tra- 
vels. So  far,  the  Missisippi  has  received  the  contribution  of 
ten  rivers  ;  its  wide  and  flattened  bed,  completely  covered 
by  water,  presents  a  lake  (or  rather  pool)  from  forty  to  fifty 
miles  square,  clogged  up  with  aquatic  plants,  with  intermedi- 
ary spaces  of  clear  water,  looking  like  channels  ;  but  among 
wdiich  it  is  difficult  to  discover  the  true  course  of  ilie  river, 
for,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  the  whole  is  nothing  more 
than  a  marshy  prairie. 

^^PemidjiLake  has  not  received  from  geographers  the  atten- 
tion that  it  merits  ;  so  that  I  cannot  resist  the  temptation  of 
describing  the  impression  it  made  upon  me.  It  is  a  magnifi- 
cent sheet  of  w^ater,  from  ten  to  twelve  miles  long,  with  a 
breadth  of  from  four  to  five,  perfectly  clear,  and  without 
islands  ;  the  eye  having  a  free  command  over  gently-swelling 
hills,  receding,  and  thickly  wooded  ;  and  it  is  said  that  no 
other  river  but  the  Missisippi  empties  into  it,  save  an  obscure 
rivulet  at  its  northern  extremity.  I  must  confess  that,  in 
crossing  it,  I  felt  melancholy  that,  even  with  my  artificial 
optics,  I  could  not  descry  any  evidences  of  civilisation — no 
cottage  of  the  agriculturist ;  no  meadows,  no  herds,  nor  any 
of  those  cultivated  fields  whose  mellow  shades  contrast  so 
gracefully  with  the  foliage  of  the  forest.  The  piercing,  soli- 
tary cry  of  the  Northern  diver — the  precursor,  according  to 
the  Indian  tradition,  of  high  winds  and  hurricanes — was  the 
only  evidence  of  living  nature  that  presented  itself." — Nic, 
pp.  60,  61. 

From  Sandy  Lake,  in  about  latitude  46°  45',  to  Crow-wing 
River,  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  the 
Missisippi  may  be  navigated  by  small  steamboats.  In  high 
stages  of  water,  they  may  pass  over  the  intervening  rapids  to 
the  Kabikons,  or  Little  Falls,  one  hundred  miles  further. 
Mr.  Nicollet  further  says  : — 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  29 

"  Over  the  whole  route  which  T  traversed  after  leaving 
Crow-wiiig  River,  the  country  lias  a  ditlcrent  aspect  from  that 
whirli  llie  banks  of  the  Missisippi  above  the  Falls  of  St. 
Anthony  present.  The  forests  are  denser  and  more  varied  ; 
the  soil,  which  is  alternately  sandy,  gravelly,  clayey,  and 
loamy,  is,  generally  speaking,  lighter,  excepting  on  the  shores 
of  some  of  the  larger  lakes.  The  uplands  are  covered  with 
white  and  yellow  pines,  ."ipruce  and  birch  ;  and  the  wet,  low 
lands,  by  the  American  larch  and  the  willow.  On  the  slopes 
of  sandy  hills,  the  American  aspen,  the  canoe-birch,  witii 
a  species  of  birch  of  dwarfish  growth,  the  alder,  and  wild  rose, 
extend  to  the  very  margin  of  the  river.  On  the  borders  of  the 
larger  lakes,  where  tlie  soil  is  generally  better,  we  find  the 
sugar-maple,  tlie  black  and  bur  oaks  (also  named  over-cup 
white  oak,  but  dillering  from  the  white  oak),  the  elm,  ash, 
lime-tree,  &c.  Generally  speaking,  however,  this  wood-land 
docs  not  extend  back  farther  than  a  mile  from  the  lakes. 
The  white  cedar,  the  hemlock,  spruce  pine,  and  fir,  are  occa- 
sionally found  ;  but  the  red  cedar  is  scarce  throughout  this 
region,  and  none,  perhaps,  are  to  be  seen  but  on  islands 
of  those  lakes  called  by  the  Indians  Red  Cedar  Lakes.  The 
shrubbery  consists  principally  of  the  wild  rose,  hawthorn, 
and  wild  plum  ;  and  raspberries,  blackberries,  strawberries, 
and  cranberries,  are  abundant. 

''  The  aspect  of  the  country  is  generally  varied  by  hills, 
dales,  copses,  small  prairies,  and  a  great  number  of  lakes ;  the 
whole  of  which  I  do  not  pretend  to  have  laid  down  on  my  map. 
The  natural  beauties  of  the  country  are,  however,  impressed 
with  a  character  of  sternness  and  melanclioly  ;  the  silence 
and  solitude  of  wliich  are  interrupted  or  revived  only  by  the 
flocks  of  water-fowl  tliat  congregate  about  its  waters,  to  nestle 
amidst  and  fatten  upon  tlic  wild  rice.  The  naturalist,  how- 
ever, has  still  an  endless  field  of  observation  in  the  insect 


30  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

world,  for  everywhere  life  manifests  itself  in  some  form  or 
Other.  It  is,  indeed,  remarkal^le,  that  the  more  we  advance 
to  the  north  (to  within  a  certain  extent,  nevertheless),  the 
more  the  mosquito  appears  to  be  abundant,  as  every  voyageur 
knows  by  sad  experience. 

*'  The  lakes  to  which  I  have  just  alluded  are  distributed  in 
separate  groups,  or  are  arranged  in  prolonged  chains  along 
the  rivers,  and  not  unfrequently  attached  to  each  other  by 
gentle  rapids.  It  has  seemed  to  me  that  they  diminish  in 
extent  on  both  sides  of  the  Missisippi,  as  we  proceed  south- 
wardly, as  far  as  43°  of  north  latitude  ;  and  this  observation 
extends  to  the  Arctic  Region,  commencing  at  Bear's  Lake,  or 
Slave  Lake,  Winnipeg  Lake,  Sec.  It  may  be  further  remarked, 
that  the  basins  of  these  lakes  have  a  sufficient  depth  to  leave 
no  doubt  that  they  will  remain  characteristic  features  of  the 
country  for  a  long  time  to  come.  Several  species  of  fish 
abound  in  them.  The  w^hite  fish  {corregonus  alhus)  is  found 
in  all  the  deep  lakes  west  of  the  Missisippi  ;  and,  indeed, 
from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Polar  Sea.  That  which  is  taken  in 
Leech  Lake,  is  said,  by  amateurs,  to  be  more  highly  flavored 
than  even  that  of  Lake  Superior,  and  weighs  from  three  to 
ten  pounds.  There  is  another  species  of  this  white  fish, 
called,  by  the  Indians,  tulihij,  or  ottunihy  (the  corregonus 
artedi),  which  resembles  it,  but  is  much  less  esteemed. 
Both  species  furnish  a  wholesome  and  palatable  food. 
Among  the  other  species  of  fish  that  inhabit  these  waters,  are 
the  mashJcinonge,  or  masJikilojige ;  the  pike,  or  jack-fish  ;  the 
pickerel,  or  gilt  carp ;  the  sucker,  or  true  carp  ;  the  perch  ; 
a  species  of  trout,  called,  by  the  Chippeways,  namogiis,  &c., 
&c.  These  lakes,  which  are  somewhat  deep,  swarm  with 
leeches  ;  and,  among  the  amphibious  reptiles,  there  are 
several  species  of  terrapin  and  turtle,  of  which  Mr.  Say  has 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRArilY.  31 

described  tliree  of  each  kind  in  ihc  appendix  lo  the  Second 
Expedition  of  Major  Long. 

*'  The  portage  between  these  lakes  and  rivers  is  effected  by 
means  of  intricate  patlis,  the  key  to  wliich  it  would  be  well 
to  have,  as,  without  it,  an  Indian  war  in  this  quarter  might 
present  still  more  difficulties  than  those  experienced  in 
Florida.  For  this  reason,  I  have  been  particularly  careful  in 
laying  these  portages  down  on  the  map,  which  I  could  not 
have  done  had  I  adopted  a  smaller  scale.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  that,  in  this  region,  during  six  months  of  the  year, 
no  use  can  be  made  of  either  horses  or  carriages  ;  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  have  recourse  to  bark  canoes.  Any  one 
consulting  the  map  to  study  the  portages,  will  soon  perceive 
that  an  enemy,  after  crossing  one  of  the  larger  lakes,  may 
make  his  escape  in  almost  all  directions.  In  this  respect,  its 
utility  becomes,  I  think,  obvious,  not  only  to  travellers,  but 
to  the  civil  and  military  department  of  the  national  adminis- 
tration."— Nic,  pp.  64,  65. 

"  St.  Peter's  is  in  my  opinion  the  finest  site  on  the  Missi- 
sippi  river ;  the  natural  beauty  of  its  environs  adding  to  its 
importance  and  grandeur.  Upon  reaching  this  place  the 
traveller  is  already  premonishcd  of  the  magnificent  scenery 
which  he  will  enjoy  in  ascending  the  river  through  its  long, 
narrow,  and  deep  valley.  At  the  confluence  of  the  St.  Peter's 
and  the  Missisippi,  there  is  an  extensive  and  fertile  plateau 
reaching  far  to  tlie  west,  and  presenting  to  the  delighted  gaze 
a  level  country,  inten'upted  by  moderate  undulations  of  the 
surface,  and  beautified  by  intervening  prairies,  tracts  of  wood- 
land, and  lakes.  Fort  Snelling  is  located  on  tlie  rocky  point 
at  this  confluence  of  the  two  rivers,  the  sight  of  which  inspires 
a  sentiment  of  self-protection  in  the  civilized  man  thus  con- 
fronted with  the  wilderness.  Looking  to  the  right  of  the 
fort,  we  behold  a  continuation  of  the  valley  of  the  Missisippi, 


32  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

whilst  to  the  left  begins  that  of  the  St.  Peter's.  The  former 
has  a  character  of  sternness,  produced  by  the  denuded  and 
abrupt  escarpments  of  its  banks,  the  wear  of  which  forms 
rude  taluses  at  tlieir  bases.  The  latter  is  more  graceful, 
having  gently  sloping  borders,  divided  into  natural  terraces, 
covered  by  a  luxuriant,  grassy  sward.  Three  miles  from 
Fort  Snelling,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missisippi,  there 
is  a  very  prett}^  cascade.  Four  miles  further,  we  reach  the 
celebrated  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  which,  examined  in  detail, 
with  the  noisy  boiling  of  its  waters,  rebounding  in  jets  from 
the  accumulated  debris  at  its  foot,  its  ascending  vapors,  and 
the  long  and  verdant  island  that  separates  the  two  portions  of 
the  falls,  with  the  solitary  rocky  island  that  stands  in  front, 
altogether  form  a  grand  and  imposing  spectacle. 

"  From  St.  Anthony's  Falls  maybe  visited  the  Lake  of  the 
Isles,  Lake  Calhoun,  Lake  Harriet,  and  other  lakes.  Then, 
crossing  the  St.  Peter's  near  its  mouth,  the  traveller  ascends 
the  Pilot  Knob,  from  the  summit  of  which  he  enjoys  a  mag- 
nificent view,  embracing  the  whole  surrounding  horizon ;  and 
if  he  will  conclude  his  excursion  by  going  to  two  natural 
grottoes  in  the  vicinity,  should  his  journey  have  commenced 
under  the  auspices  of  a  bright  rising  sun,  he  may  flatter 
himself  that  it  has  been  most  actively  and  pleasurably  per- 
formed. 

*'  The  name  of  St.  Peter's  (the  St.  Pierre  of  the  French), 
it  appears,  has  been  immemorially  given  to  the  spot  or  land- 
ing at  the  mouth  of  the  river  St.  Peter's  ;  but  whence  tlie 
name  is  not  known.  Father  Hennepin,  who  was  the  first  to 
visit  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  in  1680,  makes  no  mention  of 
this  river  ;  but  his  book  is  written  very  confusedly,  and,  as 
he  gives  no  details  of  his  route,  perhaps  had  no  occasion  to 
visit  it,  and  was  also  molested  by  the  Sioux,  the  omission  is 
explicable.     On  the  other  hand,  Lcsucur,  in  the  journal  of 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  33 

his  third  journey,  in  1700,  names  llie  St.  Peter's  as  familiarly- 
known  and  acknowledged  l)y  traders.  As  for  my  part,  I  liave 
no  hesitation  in  assigninii;  its  origin  to  a  Canadian  by  the  name 
of  Dc  St.  Pierre,  who  resided  for  a  long  lime  thereabouts. 
Carver,  in  referring  to  the  supposed  fortifications  which  lie 
visited  below  Lake  Pepin,  mentions  a  Mr.  J)e  St.  Pierre;  but 
this  was  sixty-four  years  after  the  travels  of  Lesueur.  How- 
ever, waiving  any  further  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  this  name, 
it  is  desirable  that  it  sliould  not  be  changed,  because  it  is  an 
important  link  in  tiie  liislory  of  the  geogi*aphical  discoveries 
made  in  this  region,  as  well  as  a  constant  point  of  reference 
by  travellers  over  it ;  so  tliat  any  change  would  throw  addi- 
tional obscurity  upon  the  early  history  of  the  country. 

"The  name  which  the  Sioux  give  to  the  St. Peter's  River  is 
Mini-sotah  ;  and  to  St.  Peter's  as  a  station,  Mdote-mini- 
sutah.  The  adjective  sotah  is  of  diihcult  translation.  Tlic 
Canadians  translate  it  by  a  pretty  equivalent  French  word, 
hrouille — perhaps  most  properly  rendered  into  Englisli  by 
blear;  as,  for  instance,  nmii-sotah,  blear  water,  or  tlie  entrance 
of  the  blear  water.  I  have  entered  upon  this  explanation 
because  the  word  sotah  really  means  neither  clear  nor  turbid, 
as  some  authors  have  asserted  ;  its  true  meaning  being  found 
in  the  Sioux  expression,  islita  sotah,  blear  eyed.  After  the 
same  manner  they  call  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  rara,  from 
Irara,  to  laugh,  descriptive  of  the  imitative  sound  they  arc 
supposed  to  produce.  The  Chippeways  are  more  accurate  ; 
by  them  the  Falls  are  called  Kakabikah,  or  severed  rock ;  and 
the  St.  Peter's  River  Ashkibogi  sibi,  the  Green  Leaf  River." 
— Nic,  pp.  68,  69. 

*'  From  actual  measurements  made  by  Mr.  H.  Sibley  and 

myself,  the  width  of  the  St.  Peter's  at  the  crossing-place, 

above  its   confluence,  is   320  feet ;    that   of  the  Missisippi, 

below  Fort  Snclling,  and  outside  of  the  gorge  whence  it  issues, 

3* 


34  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

is  576  feet.  The  intervening  space  between  these  two  mea- 
sured spots  is  the  rock  point  on  which  the  fort  stands,  and  a 
grassy  bottom,  the  w4iole  measuring  1263  feet.  The  mean 
height  of  the  plain  supporting  Fort  Snelhng  and  the  Indian 
Agency  is  106  feet  above  the  common  low  water  of  the  two 
rivers,  and  the  height  of  the  Pilot  Knob  above  the  same  level, 
262  feet." — Ih.,  p.  67,  et  seq. 

Lake  Pepin,  about  110  miles  below  St.  Peter's,  excels  all 
other  points  on  the  Missisippi,  below  St.  Anthony's,  in  the 
beauty  and  majesty  of  its  scenery.  It  is  an  enlargement  of 
the  Missisippi,  in  some  places  three  miles  wide,  and  averag- 
ing about  two  and  a  half,  filling  the  whole  space  from  bluff  to 
bluff,  except  at  two  points,  where  a  small  meadow  appears, 
and  extending  in  length  tw^enty-one  miles  upon  the  river.  Its 
greatest  width  is  at  the  southern  extremity.  The  rapid  cur- 
rent of  the  river  here  settles  mto  an  almost  stagnant  pool,  and 
the  lake  presents  a  smooth  and  nearly  motionless  expanse  of 
water  without  a  single  island,  though  the  river,  in  its  whole 
course,  has  a  great  many,  dotting  and  diversifying  the  water 
scenery  at  short  distances.  The  majestic  bluffs  of  limestone 
that  wall  in  the  lake,  stretch  with  more  regularity,  and  rise  to 
a  height  more  nearly  uniform  than  in  other  parts  of  the  river. 
The  Lake  is  at  times  considered  dangerous  when  ruffled  by 
storms.  "  Le  lac  est  petit,  mais  il  est  malin,"  said  Major 
Long's  interpreter.  On  the  eastern  bank,  about  midway  on 
the  Lake,  the  rocky  bluff  rises  to  a  height  of  450  feet,  the 
superior  150  feet  being  perpendicular,  and  the  remaining 
portion  below  very  abrupt.  It  forms  a  point  projecting  into 
the  Lake,  with  a  small  estuary  on  cither  side.  This  point 
has  received  the  name  of  the  jMaiden's  Rock,  from  an  incident 
which  is  related  by  Major  Long. 

In  the  band  of  Wapasha  inhabiting  the  village  of  Keoxa 
was  a  young  Indian  maid  called  Winona,  "  the  first-born." 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  35 

Slic  had  conceived  an  attaclnncnl  for  a  young  hunter,  whicli 
was  reciprocated,  and  they  had  frequently  met,  and  agreed 
upon  an  union.  Her  family  favored  the  advances  of  a  warrior 
of  distinction,  and  repelled  those  of  her  chosen  lover.  Her 
expostulations  were  unheeded.  Her  friends  drove  away  the 
hunter,  fixed  a  day  for  the  nuptials  with  the  warrior,  and 
commanded  her  to  comply.  Winona  had,  in  an  uncommon 
degree,  the  affection  of  her  brothers,  and  they  besought  for 
persuasive  rather  than  compulsory  means  toward  her.  A 
party  was  formed  to  Lake  Pepin,  to  obtain  the  blue  pigment 
used  by  the  Indians.  At  this  time  the  warrior,  who  was 
present,  encouraged  by  her  friends,  again  urged  his  addresses, 
and  was  again  repelled.  Vexed  by  her  obstinacy,  her  parents 
threatened  her,  to  compel  obedience.  "  Well,"  said  Winona, 
"  you  will  drive  me  to  despair.  I  have  told  you  that  I  cannot 
love  him,  and  that  I  wish  to  live  a  maiden.  You  say  that  you 
love  me,  and  yet  you  have  driven  away  the  man  of  my  choice. 
Well !  let  it  be  so.  But  soon  you  will  not  have  a  daughter 
and  sister  to  torment  with  your  false  professions  of  affection." 
She  withdrew  from  the  company,  and  while  they  were  pre- 
paring the  feast,  wended  her  way  slowly  to  the  top  of  the 
bluff.  When  at  the  summit,  she  called  to  her  friends,  up- 
braided them  for  their  cruelty,  and  began  to  sing  her  death- 
song.  Her  friends  rushed  toward  the  base  of  the  blulT,  en- 
treating her  to  desist,  while  otliers  madly  ran  up  the  hill  to 
prevent  her  fatal  design.  But  she  was  resolved,  and  as  she 
fuiished  her  song,  threw  herself  from  the  precipice,  and  fell, 
a  corpse,  at  the  feet  of  her  distressed  friends. 

The  Upper  Rapids  of  tlie  river  (in  speaking  of  that  portion 
of  it  below  St.  Anthony's),  commonly  called  Rock  River 
Rapids,  extend  in  length  about  fifteen  miles,  upward  from  the 
foot  of  Rock  Island,  which  is  four  miles  above  the  mouth  of 
Rock  River.     The  whole  fall  in  this  distance  is  about  twenty- 


36  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

six  feet.  It  consists  of  several  chains  of  ledges,  to  each  of 
which  the  navigators  of  the  river  have  given  distinct  names. 
The  depth  of  water  in  some  places,  at  the  lowest  stages, 
does  not  exceed  three  feet.  The  current  is  so  rapid  at  one 
point  near  the  head  of  Rock  Island,  and  at  one  or  two  other 
points,  that  a  boat,  in  ascending,  camiot  be  perceived  to  make 
any  progress. 

The  Des  Moines  Rapids  begin  at  three  or  four  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  Des  Moines  River,  and  extend  upward  about 
eleven  miles.  The  whole  fall  is  about  twenty-two  feet. 
The  descent  is  more  regular,  and  consequently  the  current 
more  uniform  than  on  the  Upper  Rapids.  Boats  of  moderate 
burden  pass  over  both  of  these  rapids  at  all  stages  ;  and  at 
some  times  the  river  may  be  passed  by  any  boats  to  St.  An- 
thony's Falls.  The  national  government  have  long  had  it  in 
contemplation  to  improve  the  navigation  over  these  rapids  ; 
but  it  can  never  be  done  properly,  until  the  system  of  log- 
rolling is  laid  aside,  and  the  sectional  jealousy  that  withholds 
the  needful  appropriation,  doling  out  a  scanty  modicum  at  a 
time,  and  riding  upon  it  a  hundred  other  appropriations  for 
as  many  different  objects. 

The  Upper  Rapids  may  be  improved  at  a  very  trifling  cost, 
by  letting  in  Rock  River  through  the  Marais  D'Osier,  or 
Willow  Swamp  (sometimes  called  Marais  D'Ogee,  and 
Mcredosia),  which  extends  from  that  river  to  the  Missisippi, 
and  through  which,  at  high  stages,  the  waters  of  the  two 
rivers  actually  mingle  ;  or,  by  bringing  the  same  stream  upon 
the  Missisippi  about  ten  miles  above  its  present  embouchure, 
over  an  intervening  low  and  level  tract  of  only  three  miles  in 

width. 

From  Gen.  Victor  Collot,  former  Governor  of  Gaudeloupe, 
who  travelled  in  the  United  States  in  1793,  the  following 
description  of  this  river  is  taken : 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  37 

*'  The  province  of  llic  Illinois  is,  perhaps,  the  only  spot 
respecting  which  travellers  have  given  no  exaggerated  ac- 
count. It  is  superior  to  any  description  which  has  been 
made,  for  local  beauty,  fertility,  climate,  and  the  means  of 
every  kind  which  nature  has  lavished  upon  it  for  the  facility 
of  commerce. 

"  This  country  is  a  delightful  valley  where  winds  one  of 
the  most  majestic  rivers  on  the  globe,  and  which,  after  re- 
ceiving the  vast  Missouri,  is  still  augmented  by  an  infinite 
number  of  smaller  rivers  and  creeks,  all  navigable  and  fitted 
for  the  construction  of  mills  and  machinery  of  almost  every 
kind. 

"  This  valley  is  full  of  small  lakes  and  villages,  and  inter- 
spersed with  woods  and  natural  meadows,  strewed  with 
medicinal  and  odoriferous  plants.  Across  these  meadows  flow 
numerous  rivulets,  sometimes  murnnuing  beneath  the  flow- 
ers, and  sometimes  displaying  their  silver  beds  and  their 
transparent  waters,  pure  as  the  air  which  is  breathed  amidst 
those  romantic  spots.  On  each  side  of  those  vast  meadows, 
which  are  level  as  the  surface  of  the  calm  ocean,  rise  lofty 
and  venerable  forests,  which  serve  as  boundaries,  while  their 
thick  and  mysterious  shades  fill  the  mind  with  reverential 
awe  and  enthusiastic  contemplation." 

In  the  foregoing  description.  Gen.  CoUot  has  reference  to 
the  river  bottom  only,  on  the  Missisippi  between  the  bluffs. 

"  This  valley,"  he  says,  "  is  bounded  on  the  right  and  left 
by  two  small  chains  of  mountains  running  parallel  with  tlie 
banks  of  the  river,  but  never  more  distant  than  four  or  five 
miles. 

"  The  chain  on  the  east  begins  to  be  perceived  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Kaskaskias,  and  runs  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, as  far  as  the  Prairie  Du  Cliicn,  situated  240  leagues 
higher. 


38  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST 

''  These  small  chains  rise  commonly  150,  and  sometimes 
200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lands  vi^hich  separate  them 
from  the  vi^aters  of  the  river.  These  masses  of  rock  are 
composed  sometimes  of  grey  stone,  flint  with  which  the  In- 
dians tip  their  aiTOWs,  or  millstone,  but  most  frequently  of 
limestone. 

"  The  lands  which  nm  along  between  these  chains  and 
the  bed  of  the  river,  form,  as  I  have  already  observed,  vast 
meadows  intersected  with  small  woods  ;  the  whole  of  these 
lands  are  the  product  of  successive  deposits,  occasioned  by 
the  overflowings  of  the  river.  Trees  half  burnt  are  often 
found  in  digging,  together  with  pieces  of  earthen  and  iron 
utensils.  The  whole  is  a  bed  of  sand,  the  surface  of  which 
is  covered  with  a  vegetable  layer  four  or  five  feet  in  thick- 
ness."— Collot,  p.  232,  et  seq. 

One  or  two  extracts  from  Nicollet  will  close  that  part  of 
the  notes  having  relation  to  the  physical  geography  and 
scenic  aspect  of  the  giant  river. 

"  The  whole  country  embraced  by  the  Lower  St.  Peter's 
and  the  Undine  Region  [or  Mankato  Valley],  exceeds  any 
land  of  the  Missisippi  above  Wisconsin  River,  as  well  in  the 
quahty  and  quantity  of  its  timber  as  the  fertility  of  its  soil. 
The  forests  of  the  valley  on  the  right  bank  are  connected  by 
groves  and  small  wooded  streams  of  the  adjoining  prairies 
with  the  forest  called  Bois-francs  ;  and  they  extend  so  far 
southwest,  as  to  include  the  lands  of  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Mankato  River. 

"  The  forest  trees,  as  reported  to  me  by  Mr.  Geyer,  arc 
chiefly  soft  maple,  American  and  red  elm,  black  walnut,  the 
nettle  tree,  bass  wood,  red  and  white  ash  ;  the  undergrowth, 
the  common  hawthorn,  prickly  ash,  high  cranberry,  red  root, 
grey  dogwood,  fox  grapes,  horse  briar,  and  moonseed. 
Among  the  herbs,  are  the  wild  and  bristly  sarsaparilla,  Indian 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAl'llY.  39 

turnip,  the  gay  orchis,  uiid  utlicrs  ;  ruslies  and  the  flowcrinir 
ferns  arc  abundant  alonfr  ilic  low  banks  of  the  rivers.  The 
valley  prairies  are  rich  in  pasture  grasses  and  leguminous 
and  orchideous  plants,  such  as  the  yellow  ladies'  slipper, 
American  and  tufted  vetch,  and  others.  The  lowest  parts 
near  the  borders  of  the  woods,  and  those  subject  to  inunda- 
tions, are  filled  with  the  high  weeds  common  to  such  places 
— as  the  ragged  cup,  tall  thistle,  great  bitter-weed,  the  tuber- 
ous sunflower,  and  others. 

"  Swamps  are  frequent,  and  some  of  them  contain  extensive 
tracts  of  tamarack  pines.  Cedars  grow  intermixed  with  red 
birch  on  the  rocky  declivities  of  the  Lower  Mankalo  River. 
Red  and  bur  oak,  with  hazel,  red  root,  peterswort,  and  the 
wild  rose,  are  the  trees  and  slirubs  of  the  uplands.  There 
are,  besides,  thickets  of  poplar-birch,  that  arc  frequent  in  the 
elevated  prairies  near  the  river.  The  prairies  are  very  luxu- 
riant, and  generally  somewhat  level  and  depressed  ;  the  gum 
plant  and  button  snakeroot  are  their  most  abundant  and  con- 
spicuous herbs. 

"Along  the  Missisippi,  a  length  of  180  miles,  from  St. 
Peter's  to  Crow-wing  River,  the  valley  is  wide,  with  river 
banks  of  moderate  elevation,  affording  beautiful  sites,  that 
contrast  remarkably  with  the  bold  escarpments  exhibited 
below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  In  this  ascent  of  the  river, 
which  is  full  of  rapids,  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the 
pole  or  the  tow-line  ;  and,  generally,  following  the  left  bank, 
under  good  guidance,  and  with  sulHcient  hands  to  stem  the 
current,  portages  may  be  avoided.  This  left  bank  presents 
almost  a  continued  level  of  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  in  eleva- 
tion, forming  a  retreating  succession  of  terraces  that  are 
delightful  to  the  view.  The  superincumbent  soil  is  composed 
mainly  of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay,  intermixed  with  erratic 
blocks.     The  sylva  consists  of  white  and  black  uuk,  wlute 


40  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

and  blue  ash,  red  elm,  two  or  three  species  of  maple,  the 
lime  tree,  birch,  a  few  hickories  and  walnuts.  The  western 
shore  is  more  generally  interspersed  with  swamps  and  wood- 
lands, well  set  with  pines,  birch,  and  sometimes  with  exten- 
sive camps  of  the  sugar-maple." — {Nic,  p.  54.) 

"  The  first  steamboat  arrived  at  St.  Louis  in  1819.  Since 
that  time  the  Upper  Missisippi  is  covered  with  these  boats  ; 
and  the  number  of  arrivals  yearly  at  Galena  and  Dubuque  is 
upwards  of  1000.  A  few  boats  go  above.  In  the  summer  of 
1844,  two  boats  were  used  to  run  regularly  from  Galena  to 
St.  Peter's.  No  summer  has  passed  in  the  last  five  years 
without  the  passage  of  some  boats  up  the  river  to  that  point 
with  parties  of  pleasure,  to  enjoy  the  cool  prairie  breezes  and 
rich  scenery  of  that  upper  region. 

Beside  the  steamboats,  there  are  keel  boats  used  for 
conveying  produce  and  merchandise  ;  flat  boats,  and  dug  outs 
or  canoes,  rudely  made  of  logs.  Occasionally  a  Mackinac 
boat,  sloop-rigged,  is  seen  there,  brought  over  from  the  lake 
by  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers.  The  obstructions  which 
are  so  annoying  to  the  navigator  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Missouri,  known  under  the  name  of  planters,  saw3^ers,  snags 
and  rafts,  are  but  rarely  found  above  the  confluence  of  the 
two  streams,  in  the  Missisippi. 

The  river  has  an  annual  rise,  from.  April  to  June,  of  some 
six  to  ten  feet ;  and  there  is  sometimes  a  second  rise  about 
September.  The  usual  velocity  of  the  current  is  about  two 
miles  an  hour.     The  water  is  very  clear. 

Missouri  River. — Of  the  Missouri  River  much  less  is 
known  than  of  the  Missisippi,  and  it  is  also  at  this  time 
much  less  an  object  of  interest.  The  current  of  the  Mis- 
souri is  said  to  be  about  four  miles  an  hour,  or  doulile  that 
of  the  Missisippi.     Its  water  is  turbid,  and  in  these  two  par- 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  41 

ticulars  it  greatly  differs  from  tlie  other  river,  with  clear 
waters  and  a  moderate  current.  The  fall  of  the  Missisippi 
from  St.  Peter's,  and  tliat  of  the  Missouri  from  Pierre  Chou- 
teau, to  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers,  are  in  the  ratio  of 
45  to  85,  according  to  Nicollet,  and  therefore  the  average 
rapidity  of  the  Missouri  is  nearly  twice  that  of  the  Missi- 
sippi.* The  great  rapidity  of  current  in  the  Missouri  render- 
ing that  river  difficult  of  navigation,  even  by  the  power  of 
steam,  in  the  upward  voyage,  is  not  the  only  obstacle,  how- 
ever, to  the  passage  of  boats  upon  it.  Its  velocity  and  force 
constantly  bring  along  and  heap  up  sand  bars,  a  characteris- 
tic of  nearly  all  the  western  rivers,  except  the  Des  Moines 
and  Rock  Rivers,  which  have  rocky  beds.  Beside  the  ac- 
cumulating and  shifting  of  sands,  the  same  cause  fills  the 
river  with  planters,  snags,  and  sawyers,  which  are  all  the 
same  thing,  that  is,  drift  wood  partly  buried  in  the  sand  so 
as  to  hold  in  position,  while  projecting  to  the  surface  it  pre- 
sents a  point  upon  which  the  boat  strikes,  and  is  wrecked. 
The  different  names  given  to  this  kind  of  obstruction  have 
reference  merely  to  the  position  in  which  they  become  fixed. 
The  Missouri  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course  is  very  tur- 
bid, bringing  down  a  great  quantity  of  mud  with  its  waters. 
This  character,  it  has  been  said,  it  loses  above  the  Platte, 
600  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  difference  in  the  descent  of 
its  current  above  that  point,  as  given  by  Nicollet,  renders  the 

miles  fr.  m.       alt.  alt.  at  m. 

*  F.  P.  Chouteau     1256         1450     —     3S8     =     1068 
St.  Peter's  786  744     —     3S8     =       356 

From  these  measurements  it  appears  the  Missouri  falls  1008  feet  in  1256 
miles,  or  over  80  feet  in  .100  miles,  and  the  Missisippi  350  feet  in  780 
miles,  or  over  40  feet  in  100  miles,  or  5i  ins.  nearly  in  a  mile.  The  fall 
of  the  Missouri  is,  however,  unequal :  in  the  upper  050  miles,  starting  from 
Fort  Pierre,  the  descent  is  484  feet,  a  little  over  8  inches  to  the  mile  :  in 
the  remaining  GOO,  to  the  mouth,  it  is  584  or  12  inches  nearly  to  a  mile. 


42  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

assertion  very  probable.  Above  Yellow  Stone  it  has  a  fall 
of  362  feet  in  17  miles:  the  upper  fall  is  90  feet.  The 
tributaries  are  almost  innumerable.  The  most  considerable 
in  length  and  width  is  the  Platte,  but  it  is  too  shallow  for 
navicration. 

The  bottoms  of  this  river  are  higher  than  the  Missisippi, 
and  rather  narroAver. 

The  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Osage  is  135  miles  :  to  Kansas  River  382 — 
Nishnabatona  540 — Platte  or  Nebraska  618 — Council  Bluffs 
676 — Sioux  River  about  860 — James  River  about  950 — 
Poncah  or  Niobrarah  River  1018 — Fort  Pierre  Chouteau 
1256.  These  distances,  given  by  Nicollet  (except  the  Sioux 
and  James),  are  the  results  of  measurements  made  by  him. 
To  the  Yellow  Stone  the  distance  is  said  by  Flint  to  be  1880 
miles,  the  whole  of  which  distance  is  navigable  ;  from  the 
mouth  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  1400,  making  in  the  whole 
a  navigation  of  about  3300  miles  from  the  Yellow  Stone  to 
the  Gulf. 

"  On  reaching  the  Coteau  du  Missouri,  there  are  no  fur- 
ther apparent  traces  of  the  cretaceous  formation.  It  is  a 
rolling  prairie,  the  soil  partly  covered  by  a  short,  sweet- 
scented,  and  grateful  verdure.  An  inspection  of  the  gulleys 
shows  that  the  basis  of  this  soil  is  the  en'atic  deposit  previ- 
ously described.  The  siliceous  particles  of  the  soil  are 
blackened  by  the  smoke  of  the  vernal  and  autumnal  fires 
of  the  prairies  ;  and,  as  the  gi'owth  is  too  scant  to  prevent 
the  dust  from  being  raised  by  the  almost  incessant  winds 
that  blow  over  them,  the  traveller  is  very  much  inconveni- 
enced. There  are  no  springs  to  quench  the  thirst ;  and  it 
is  only  at  wide  distances  apart  that  small  pools  are  met 
with,  bordered  by  aquatic  plants,  towards  which  the  experi- 
ence of  his  guide  is  necessary  to  bring  him  to  his  bivouac, 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  43 

where  he  must  needs  have  recourse  to  the  dried  dung  of  tlie 
Buffalo  for  fuel.  It  was  in  tlie  hope  of  extricating  ourselves 
from  difBcuhics  of  this  kind,  that  we  made  an  examination 
of  the  forks  of  the  East  Medicine  River,  which  empties  into 
the  Missouri  about  fifteen  miles  below  Fort  Pierre. 

"  This  last-mentioned  river  derives  its  name  from  a  beau- 
tiful hill  on  its  right  bank,  called  by  the  Sioux  Pahah- 
ivaJwn — translated  by  the  voyageurs,  '  Butte  de  Medicine/ 
and,  in  English,  Medicine  hillock,  or  knoll.  It  is  to  be  re- 
marked, in  fact,  of  the  prairies  of  this  region,  that  they  pre- 
sent such  low  insulated  hillocks,  to  which  the  Sioux  apply 
the  somewhat  generic  name  of  re  or  pa/ia/i,  according  as 
they  are  more  or  less  elevated  above  the  surrounding  plain. 
The  afhx,  wakan,  indicates  that  the  locality  is  to  them  pecu- 
liarly remarkable,  or  even  sacred,  and  a  spot  which  they 
select  in  preference  for  some  of  their  ceremonies." — Nic.y 
p.  44. 

The  secondary  rivers  of  this  region  are  the  St.  Peters,  St. 
Croix,  Chippewa,  Wisconsin,  Rock,  Moingonan  or  Des 
Moines,  and  Illinois  falling  into  the  Missisippi,  and  Tchan- 
sansan  or  James,  and  Tchankasndata  or  Sioux,  falling  into 
the  Missouri.  The  Fox  River  or  Outajrami,  falling  into 
Lake  Michigan,  is  also  lo  be  placed  in  this  class.  Other 
streams  that  are  of  some  importance  are  the  Crow  Wing  or 
Kagiwigwan,  Karishon  or  Crow,  Iskodo  Wabo  or  Rum,  or 
Spirit  (the  meaning,  I  think,  is  White  Fire  Water),  Sappah 
or  Black  River,  Hokah  or  Root,  Upper  Iowa,  Penaca  or 
Turkey,  Maquoqueta  or  Bear,  Wabesepinecon  or  White 
Potato  abode,  as  the  interpreter  told  me*  (or  rather,  I  think, 

*  Mr.  Leclair,  former  interpreter  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  gave  me  the 
above  dofinitiDn  of  the  name  of  this  river:  Wabe,  wliite  ;  pin,  potato; 
icon  or  nicon,  abode.  It  may  be  so :  and  the  third  syllabic,  se,  only  an 
expletive.     But  Wabe-sepo,  or  sipi,  is  white  river.     This  tribe  use  the 


44  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

White  River  abode  or  place  of  council),  Wabc  (white)  sippi 
(river)  necon  (abode  or  council  place),  Iowa  or  Anketoskesha 
(horse),  Checaqua,  and  Salt  River,  all  these  fall  into  the 
Miss-isippi.  The  Blue  Earth,  or  Mankato,  falling  into  St. 
Peter's  ;  the  Chariton,  the  Grand  River,  Little  Platte,  Nish- 
nabatona,  Inyan  Yankey,  or  Little  Sioux,  flowing  into  the 
Missouri ;  Shayan  Oju,  flowing  into  Red ;  and  a  number, 
almost  endless,  of  smaller  rivers. 

St.  Peter's  River,  called  by  the  Sioux  Mini-sotah  (blear 
water),  and  by  the  Chippeways  Ashkibogi  (green  leaf),  rises 
in  a  region  of  lakes  at  the  head  of  the  Coteau  des  Prairies, 
and  running  southeast  soon  expands  into  the  Big  Stone  Lake, 
and  farther  on,  after  receiving  two  considerable  streams,  the 
Izuzah  and  Tipsinah,  again  forms  a  small  lake  (called  Qui 
parle,  or  Echo  Lake),  below  w^hich  the  volume  of  water  is 
again  much  increased  by  the  addition  of  other  branches,  the 
Litpah  and  the  Manya  Wakan,  and  farther  down  by  the  Pej- 
uta  Zizi,  or  Yellow  Medicine;  below  which  are  a  series  of 
rapids  and  falls  for  thirty  or  forty  miles  to  the  Tchanshayapi 
or  Red  Wood,  another  branch,  which,  starting  in  immediate 
contiguity  with  the  sources  of  Moingonan,  and  seeking  St. 
Peter's  by  a  not  very  winding  course,  falls  into  it  on  the  right 
in  about  44*^  35''  N.  BeloAV  this  the  river  is  navigable  to  its 
mouth,  about  250  miles.  In  this  part  of  its  course  it  receives 
the  Waraju,  Little  Waraju,  and  Mankato,  or  Blue  Earth,  on 
its  right  bank,  and  immediately  turning,  runs  in  a  right  angle 
to  its  former  course,  and  receiving  a  great  number  of  small 
streams  on  both  sides,  and  on  its  left  the  Witahantu,  of  larger 

termination  nica,  nicon  or  icon,  to  express  something  more  than  abode  or 
residence.  Thus  they  call  the  city  of  Washington,  Washitonica  or  VVash- 
itonicon.  It  probably  means  place  of  council,  or  perhaps  abode  of  the 
Chief.     Mr.  Doty  gives  the  name  of  the  root  as  Wabesepin 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  45 

size,  enters  the  Missisippi  in  lat.  44°  52^  about  ciglit  miles 
below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  which  arc  in  44°  58^  40^', 
as  given  by  Nicollet.  The  whole  length  of  this  course  is 
470  miles. 

The  St.  Croix  River  has  its  extreme  sources  in  Lakes 
Nidjichwe,  Miminis,  Upper  St.  Croix,  and  other  lakes  that 
lie  very  contiguous  to  and  nearly  surrounding  the  Kagino 
Lake,  which  is  the  head  water  of  the  River  Mashkeg,  falling 
into  Lake  Superior,  and  another  small  lake  that  gives  rise  to 
the  Wassakude,  or  Burnt  Wood  River,  also  a  tributary  of  the 
great  lake.  From  these  sources  several  branches  flow,  and 
unite  in  one  stream.  It  has  a  succession  of  rapids  at  about 
fifty  miles  below  the  junction,  and  at  about  the  same  distance 
below  are  falls,  near  the  latitude  of  45°  30^  From  this  point 
to  the  Missisippi  it  is  a  handsome  and  navigable  stream,  and 
expands  into  a  lake  called  by  the  same  name,  by  which  it 
becomes  united  to  the  Missisippi,  in  less  than  100  miles  from 
the  falls,  in  lat.  about  44°  45'. 

The  Chippeway  River  is  composed  of  several  branches, 
the  longest  of  which,  called  Manidowish,  rises  in  several 
small  lakes  north  of  46°.  It  has  falls  below  45°,  and  after 
a  short  course  below  them  of  fifty  or  sixty  miles,  unites  with 
the  Missisippi,  at  the  lower  point  of  Lake  Pepin. 

The  euphoneous  Mini  Kette  Kittigan,  a  small  lake  of 
four  or  five  miles  in  diameter,  in  lat.  46°  10',  is  the  source 
of  the  Wisconsin  River ;  which,  with  a  winding  course,  and 
a  succession  of  rapids,  rolls  down  a  small  stream  till  below 
the  latitude  of  44°  30^,  where  it  suddenly  expands  into  a  cir- 
cular pool  of  a  mile  and  a  half  or  two  miles  in  diameter  at 
tlie  foot  of  the  lower  rapids ;  and  then,  in  a  bed  considerably 


46  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

wider  than  its  upper  course,  describing  a  very  regular  semi- 
circle or  rather  semi-ellipse,  which  spans  about  one  degree  of 
latitude,  in  which  it  receives  no  tributary,  it  approaches  the 
Fox  River  of  Green  Bay  ^vithin  one  mile,  where,  making  a 
bend  at  about  right  angles,  it  runs  south-west,  and  afterward 
nearly  west,  receiving  after  its  recession  from  Fox  a  great 
many  small  streams,  it  enters  the  Missisippi  after  a  course 
of  more  than  150  miles  from  the  Fox,  in  lat.  43^.  This 
latter  part  of  its  course  can  be  made  navigable  for  steamboats 
by  clearing  the  bed  of  sand  in  some  places.  It  is  proposed 
to  do  this,  and  by  a  canal  from  this  to  the  Fox,  of  one  or  two 
miles,  to  make  a  clear  navigation  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the 
Missisippi.  All  these  rivers  named  after  the  St.  Peter's 
have  their  whole  course  in  Wisconsin. 

Rock  River  rises  in  Wisconsin,  and  after  a  main  southerly 
course  for  a  considerable  distance,  in  which  it  has  entered  the 
State  of  Illinois,  it  turns  westwardl}^  and  directing  its  current 
toward  the  Missisippi,  finds  that  stream  four  miles  below 
Rock  Island  and  tlie  foot  of  the  Upper  Rapids,  which  is  the 
most  beautiful  point  on  the  great  river  below  Lake  Pepin. 
Small  steamboats  have  been  to  Grand  Detour,  upwards  of  a 
hundred  miles  from  its  mouth.  This  is  very  difficult,  how- 
ever, to  be  done  in  the  spring  floods,  and  can  only  be  done 
then.  At  the  best  water  the  rapids  at  the  mouth  are  only 
covered  but  little  more  than  one  foot.  If  the  obstructions 
higher  up  this  stream  could  be  removed,  those  at  the  mouth 
might  be  obviated,  by  making  it  debouch  into  the  Missisippi 
through  the  Marais  D'Osier,  or  at  a  point  a  little  below  the 
village  of  Hampton,  about  midway  on  the  rapids  of  the  latter 
river.  The  country  upon  Rock  River  and  its  tributaries  is 
one  of  surpassing  beauty.  On  the  Pectanon,  or  Pectanonica, 
a  principal  branch,  commonly  called  Peckatonica,  and  on  the 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  4T 

Yellow  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  latter,  the  scenery  is  un- 
commonly fine. 

The  MoiNGONAN,  commonly  called  Dos  Moines,  is  the 
most  important  stream  tributary  to  the  Missisippi  on  its  west- 
ern bank,  above  the  Missouri.  This  stream,  it  is  said  by 
Nicollet,  is  called  Inyan  Shasha  by  the  Sioux,  and  Moingo- 
nan  by  the  Algonquins.  A  river,  which  appears  to  be  this, 
entering  the  Missisippi  on  the  west,  is  called  by  Hennepin 
and  Lahontan  Otenta.  It  is  called  Moingona  by  Charlevoix, 
Des  Moines  (Monks'  River)  by  Lewis  and  Clarke.  Pike 
makes  no  mention  of  the  river,  but  calls  the  rapids  immedi- 
ately above,  on  the  Missisippi,  De  Moycn ;  on  the  map  ac- 
compiuiying  his  volume,  tliey  are  both  marked  with  the  name 
Des  Moines.  It  is  called  by  Collot,  Moins  (Less)  River. 
The  Shetek  Lakes,  the  fountain  of  the  Moingona,  are  on  a 
ridge  of  land  from  which  springs  the  source  of  Red  Wood 
River,  a  branch  of  St.  Peter's.  It  is  a  region  of  lakes  and 
wet  prairie  for  more  than  a  degree  of  latitude  south  of  the 
ridge.  The  Suiikaku,  or  Brotlier,  is  the  highest  principal 
branch  on  the  left.  Tiie  Lizard  enters  a  short  distance  be- 
low, on  the  right.  Some  forty  miles  below,  another  princi- 
pal branch  enters  on  the  left.  The  Racoon  fork,  after  a 
longer  interval  from  the  last,  enters  on  the  riglit.  This 
branch  is  about  200  miles  from  tlie  mouth  of  the  river,  and 
a  large  distance  above  as  well  as  most  of  that  below,  to  the 
mouth,  is  navigable,  being  interrupted  at  several  points  at 
present,  but  susceptible,  by  very  moderate  improvements,  of 
uninterrupted  navigation  for  about  300  miles.  The  bed  of 
this  river  is  for  the  most  part  rock,  in  wliich  it  (Hfrcrs  from 
the  streams  generally  in  this  region,  which,  witli  some  excep- 
tions, arc  sandy.  In  the  spring  floods,  this  stream  may  be 
navigated  for  two  or  three  months  as  liigh  as  the  Racoon  by 


48  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

such  boats  as  ascend  the  Upper  Missisippi  above  the  Rapids. 
To  render  it  navigable  at  all  times  by  such  boats,  it  requires 
to  have  a  few  loose  rocks  removed,  some  snags  drawn  out, 
and,  in  a  few  points,  an  artificial  embankment,  to  overcome 
the  sharp  angles.  With  these  operations,  the  river  may  be 
navigable  for  300  miles.  Perhaps  the  making  slack  water 
at  certain  distances,  would  further  improve  it.  Capt.  Guion, 
of  the  Topographical  Engineers,  describes  it  as  being  the 
most  beautiful  and  fertile  country  on  which  the  eye  of  man 
ever  rested.  The  Tchanshetcha  Lake,  which  is  the  source 
of  the  Watumwan,  a  branch  of  the  Mankato,  which,  in  its 
turn,  is  tributary  to  St.  Peter's,  is  separated  from  the  Des 
Moines  only  one  mile  and  a  half,  and  by  a  short  canal,  boats 
may  pass  through  into  the  St.  Peter's. 

Nicollet,  in-  his  report,  gives  an  extended  and  very  excel- 
lent description  of  this  river,  from  which  we  take  the  follow- 
ing extract : 

"  The  Des  Moines  empties  into  the  Missisippi  in  40^  22' 
latitude  north  ;  and  its  sources,  heretofore  supposed  to  be  in 
43^,  are  extended  on  my  map  to  44°  3'  north.  It  is  fed  from 
the  beautiful  group  of  lakes,  previously  described  as  the 
Shetek  lakes,  towards  the  middle  of  the  plateau  of  the  Coteau 
des  Prairies,  at  an  elevation  of  1580  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  waters  of  these  lakes  flow  from  northwest  to 
southeast,  swelling  themselves  by  innumerable  tributaries 
until  they  enter  the  Missisippi  at  an  elevation  of  about  444 
feet  above  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

"  The  course  of  the  Des  Moines  cannot  be  less  than  400 
miles  ;  whence  it  would  follow  that  the  average  of  its  descent 
is  nearly  three  feet  to  the  mile,  with  a  current  approaching  in 
velocity  that  of  the  Missouri.  The  river  flows  constantly  in 
a  deep  valley,  from  its  sources  to  within  a  few  miles  of  its 
confluence  witli  the  Missisippi,  where  it  spreads  over  low 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  49 

grounds.     In  its  upper  part,  its  bed  is  upon  sand,  rolled  peb- 
bles, and  sliingle  (lO^aJIcts). 

"  Like  most  of  the  rivers  in  this  region,  it  has  its  sources 
in  lakes  and  swampy  grounds,  and  has  a  tortuous  and  slug- 
gish course  till  it  reaches  a  greater  declivity  about  43°  of 
latitude,  when  it  becomes  much  more  rapid  and  direct,  and 
frequently  pilches  impetuously  over  rocky  beds  of  carbo- 
niferous limestone  forming  frequent  bluffs  on  alternate  sides. 
This  rock,  which  might  furnisli  an  abundance  of  excellent 
building  materials,  is  overlaid  in  some  places  by  deposits 
of  coal.  Penned  up,  as  it  were,  between  the  valleys  of  the 
Missisippi  and  the  Missouri,  and  those  of  their  adjacent  tribu- 
tary streams,  the  Des  Moines  has  no  large  tributary  of  its 
own.  Flowing  through  a  wide  and  deep  valley,  the  principal 
waters  which  it  receives  are  the  drainings  through  deep  and 
long  ravines,  intersecting  its  shores,  and  rendering  the  travel 
along  them  inconvenient  and  painful." 

I'he  head  streams  of  the  Illinois  span  a  large  tract  of  coun- 
try. The  Kankake,  its  southern  main  constituent,  rises  in 
a  swampy  ground  south  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  flowing 
nearly  westerly  for  more  than  100  miles,  unites  with  the  Des 
Plaines  or  Maple  River,  both  of  which  names  are  transla- 
tions of  its  Pottawatami  appellation,  Sheshikmaoshike,  which, 
from  its  size  and  the  direction  of  its  course,  may  dispute  with 
Kankake  the  title  of  principal  constituent  of  the  United 
Stream,  at  a  few  rods  below  the  point  where  Otokakenog 
(uncovered  breast),  another  primary  branch,  mingles  with  it, 
coming  from  the  northwest.  This  last  stream  has  received 
the  name  of  Du  Page,  from  a  man  who  was  buried  on  its 
banks. 

When  the  tliree  streams  are  united  into  one,  it  receives  the 

name  of  Illinois  :    but  it  has  still  another  primary  branch 

coming  from  the  northwest  still  further  west,  which  enters 

4 


50  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

only  twenty  miles  below  the  confluence  of  the  others,  called, 
by  the  Indians,  Pishtaco,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
in  modern  times,  the  Fox  River  of  the  Illinois.  The  cha- 
racter of  tlie  country  on  the  Upper  Sheshikmaoshike  is  simi- 
lar to  that  about  the  sources  of  the  Kankake,  very  flat,  wet 
and  marshy,  and  is,  for  the  most  part,  prairie  or  untimbered 
land,  covered  with  tall  grass,  wild  rice,  and  other  aquatic 
plants.  The  course  of  the  Illinois,  as  constituted  by  these 
several  streams,  is  nearly  south  for  a  considerable  distance. 
It  then  takes  a  course  more  westerly,  and,  becoming  navi- 
gable for  steamboats  below  the  falls  at  a  point  w^here  is  built 
the  town  of  Peru,  it  pursues  its  course  through  a  country 
which,  if  it  be  surpassed,  is  only  by  the  Moingona  and  Sini- 
sepo  or  Rock  River,  and  St.  Peter's.  It  is,  in  the  wdiole 
length  of  the  united  stream,  three  hundred  miles  or  more  to 
the  mouth.  For  fifty  miles  of  its  upper  course  it  is  not  navi- 
gable, to  the  lower  rapids ;  below  this  point  it  is  navigable  for 
250  miles  to  its  mouth.  Below  these  rapids  the  current  is 
almost  imperceptible.  On  account  of  the  very  slight  descent 
of  the  river  the  Missisippi  when  full  sets  back  the  waters  of 
the  Illinois  for  seventy  miles.  It  frequently  overfloAvs  its 
banks.  The  Vermillion  is  considerable  in  size,  and  adds  a 
large  volume  to  the  waters  of  the  principal  river,  but  it  is  not 
navigable.  The  Mackina,  Sangamon,  Spoon  and  Crooked 
Rivers,  lower  tributaries,  are  sometimes  set  down  as  navi- 
gable. The  Sangamon  is  so.  Before  entering  the  Missi- 
sippi it  receives  many  minor  streams,  and  the  Macoupin, 
scarcely  less  than  those  last  before  named. 

The  other  tributaries  of  the  Missisippi  on  the  west,  be- 
tween Des  Moines  and  St.  Peter's,  are  the  Iowa  and  Red 
Cedar,  both  of  which  may  be  said  to  be  navigable,  the  Wa- 
besepinicon,  Makwaketa,  Turkey  or  Penaca,  Upper  Iowa, 
Haka  (or  Root),  and  Lahontan.    The  Tchansansan,  or  James 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  51 

River  (a  Iribulary  of  tlic  Missouri),  is  a  fine  navigable  stream 
passing  tln-ougli  a  beautiful  and  luxuriant  region,  the  follow- 
ing account  of  which  is  given  by  Mr.  Nicollet : 

"  We  reached  the  river  Jacques,  at  a  very  celebrated  spot, 
called  by  the  Sioux  Otuhuoju — meaning,  literally,  the  place 
*  where  the  oaks  sj)ring  up,'  but  which  I  have  designated  on 
my  map  as  the  '  Oakwood  Settlement.' 

"  The  estimate  which  I  have  made  of  the  distance  between 
this  place  and  Fort  PiciTC  is  about  110  miles  ;  its  actual  ele- 
vation above  the  sea  is  about  1,340  feet,  and  the  descent  from 
the  Coteau  du  Missouri  to  the  river  Jacques  not  less  than  750 
feet.  The  last  fifty  miles,  by  our  route,  belong  to  the  east 
slope  of  the  Coteau  du  Missouri ;  but,  as  we  were  obliged  to 
select  our  ground,  allowing  for  this,  the  whole  direct  distance 
is  probably  forty  miles.  In  a  similar  way,  estimating  the 
distance  to  the  head  of  the  Coteau  des  Prairies,  which  is 
thirty  miles  to  the  east,  the  basin  of  the  river  Jacques  be- 
tween the  two  coteaux,  and  in  the  latitude  of  Otohuoju,*  may 
be  laid  down  as  having  a  breadth  of  eighty  miles,  sloping 
gradually  down  from  an  elevation  of  700  to  750  feet.  These 
dimensions,  of  course,  vary  in  the  different  parts  of  the  valley ; 
but  what  I  have  said  will  convey  some  idea  of  the  immense 
prairie  watered  by  the  Tchansansan,  which  has  been  deemed 
by  all  travellers  to  those  distant  regions  perhaps  the  most 
beautiful  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States. 

"  I  hazard,  in  conclusion  of  my  remarks  on  the  physical 
geography  of  tlie  valley  just  described,  the  suggestion  that  it 
has  been  scooped  out  by  some  powerful  denuding  cause,  and 
that  its  oriiiinal  ij-eoloii-ical  character  was  such  as  is  now 
observed  in  the  Coteau  du  Missouri  and  the  Coteau  dcs 
Prairies,  by  which  it  is  bounded. 

♦  About  45°  15'. 


52  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

"  It  is  only  necessary  to  cast  a  glance  over  the  map,  to 
form  an  idea  of  the  importance  of  Tchansansan  river.  It 
takes  its  rise  on  the  plateau  of  the  Missouri,  beyond  the 
parallel  of  47°  N. ;  and  after  pursuing  nearly  a  north-and-south 
course,  empties  into  the  Missouri  River  below  43°.  It  is 
deemed  navigable  with  small  hunting  canoes  for  betw^een  500 
and  600  miles ;  but,  below  Otuhuoju,  it  will  float  much 
larger  boats,  and  there  are  no  other  obstacles  in  its  navigation 
than  a  few  rafts.  When  we  turned  away  from  the  river  in 
latitude  46°  27',  its  breadth  was  from  80  to  100  feet ;  and 
we  could  discover  by  the  water-marks  on  its  banks,  that,  in 
the  season  of  freshets,  it  widens  out  here  to  100  yards,  and 
south  of  Otuhuoju  to  200  yards.  The  shores  of  the  river 
are  generally  tolerably  well  wooded,  though  only  at  intervals ; 
the  trees  consisting  principall}''  of  elm,  ash,  burr-oak,  poplar 
and  willows.  Along  those  portions  where  it  widens  into  lakes, 
very  eligible  situations  for  farms  would  be  found,  and  if  the 
Indian  traders  have  hitherto  selected  positions  south  of  the 
Otuhuoju,  it  was  doubtless  in  consequence  of  its  more  easy 
navigation  into  the  Missouri."  [From  Otohuoju  to  tlie  mouth 
is  from  250  to  300  miles.  Very  little  is  known  to  us  of 
this  river  beyond  the  above  very  scanty  description  of  Mr. 
Nicollet.] 

"  I  have  already  stated,  I  think,  that  the  lower  portion  of 
the  Coteau  des  Prairies  forms  two  spurs;  one  of  which  turns 
off  tlie  rivers  that  have  been  precedingly  described  into  the 
Missisippi,  the  other  into  the  Missouri.  The  divisional  line 
of  these  two  spurs  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  course  of  the 
Des  Moines  from  43°  30'  of  north  latitude  ;  and  the  one  now 
referred  to  is  a  prominent  ridge,  separating  the  waters  tliat 
empty  into  the  Des  Moines  from  those  that  flow  westwardly 
into  the  Missouri.  But,  as  it  falls  off  in  a  gradual  slope  when 
it  has  reached  already  42*^  of  latitude,  the  head-waters  then 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  63 

take  first  an  E.  and  afterwards  a  SSE.  direction,  and  are 
divided  from  each  other  only  by  moderate  swells  or  undula- 
tions of  the  country,  that  cause  them  to  ramify  into  a  rain  of 
streams,  carrying  tlicir  waters,  after  long  ramblings,  easterly 
to  the  Missisippi,  and  southerly  to  the  Missouri,  until  they 
finally  unite. 

'*  To  the  north  and  west  of  Nodaway,  or  Snake  River — 
meaning  a  particular  species  of  snake — several  important 
streams  take  their  rise  on  that  side  of  the  Coteau  des  Prairies 
I  am  now  considering,  to  empty  themselves,  of  course,  finally 
into  the  Missouri.  I  shall  nuw  give  an  account  of  those 
which  appear  to  be  least  generally  known. 

"Inyanyanke  River,  or  Little  Sioux. — The  name  of  this 
river  implies  that  there  is  a  rock  somewdiere  along  its  course.* 
It  has  been  heretofore  designated  as  the  Little  Sioux  River, 
and  has  its  origin  from  a  group  of  lakes,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  called  by  the  Sioux  Miniwakan,  or  Spirit  Water; 
hence  its  name  of  Spirit  Lake.  This  lake  has  a  triangular 
form  ;  being  about  seven  miles  wide  at  its  largest  extremity, 
and  seven  miles  in  length.  It  is  not  remarkably  well  wooded; 
the  smaller  lakes  to  the  north  of  it  being  better  supplied  in 
this  respect. 

"  Tchankasndata  River,  or  Sioux  River. — This  is  the 
Big,  or  simply  the  Sioux  River,  and  is  one  of  the  most  im- 

*  "  Inyanyanke  River  is  said  to  be  navigable  for  canoes.  As  I  saw  but 
the  two  extremities  of  this  river,  and  having  obtained  no  reliable  informa- 
tion concerning  its  intermediary  courses,  I  do  not  insist  on  its  accurate 
representation  on  my  map.  I  may  most  probably  have  placed  it  too  high 
up  one  of  its  tributaries — the  Otcheyedan — a  name  derived  from  a  small 
hill,  the  literal  meaning  of  which  is  '  the  spot  where  they  cry,'  alluding 
to  the  custom  of  the  Indians  to  repair  to  elevated  situations  to  weep  over 
Iheir  dead  relations." 


54  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

portance  to  the  country  through  which  it  flows.  Its  Indian 
name  means  that  it  is  continuously  hned  with  wood.  Its 
sources  are  at  the  head  of  the  Coteau  des  Prairies,  not  more 
than  a  mile  from  those  of  the  St.  Peter's,  and  separated  only 
by  a  low  ridge.  Its  length  cannot  be  less  than  350  miles  ;  in 
which  distance  there  are  two  principal  bends — the  more 
southerly  and  smaller  being  terminated  by  a  fall,  said  to  be  the 
only  obstacle  to  its  entire  navigation.  From  this  circumstance, 
the  upper  part  of  the  river  bears  another  name :  the  Sioux  calling 
it  Watpaipakshan,  or  Crooked  River,  and  the  French,  la  riviere 
Croche.  It  flows  through  a  beautiful  and  fertile  country  ; 
amidst  which,  the  Ndakotahs,  inhabiting  the  valley  of  the 
St.  Peter's  and  Missouri,  have  always  kept  up  summer  es- 
tablishments on  the  borders  of  the  adjoining  lakes,  whilst  they 
hunted  the  river  banks.  Buff'alo  herds  are  confidently  ex- 
pected to  be  met  with  here  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

"  Wassecha,  or  Vermillion  River. — This  river  is  scarce- 
ly more  than  sixty  miles  long.  It  issues  from  two  lakes, 
which  the  Frenchmen  have  named  Lacs  aux  Bois  leger — 
Light-wood  Lakes.  Near  its  entrance  into  the  Missouri,  it 
forks,  owing  to  a  remarkable  promontory  that  juts  out  of  the 
prairie,  and  to  which  are  attached  many  romantic  traditions 
that  I  have  not  time  to  recount.  The  river  is  not  well  wood- 
ed ;  it  is  navigable  by  canoes  a  portion  of  its  length  ;  and  is 
the  last  that  empties  into  the  Missouri  among  those  flowing 
from  the  western  side  of  the  Coteau  des  Prairies.  At  its 
mouth  is  the  upper  end  of  an  entensive  prairie,  about  fifty 
miles  long,  between  the  Tchankasndata  and  the  Missouri 
Rivers  ;*  having  some  analogy  in  its  general  appearance  with 

•  "  This  is  the  bottom  designated  by  Lewis  and  Clark  as  the  Buffalo 
prairie,  in  consequence  of  the  great  number  of  these  animals  that  they 
eaw  there.  Pierre  Chouteau  &  Co.,  of  St.  Louis,  keep  generally  a  trading- 
post  upon  it." 


PHYSICAL    GEOGilAPIIY.  55 


the  American  boUoni  t)f  the  State  of  Illinois,  opposite  St. 
Louis.  Belonging  to  this  is  a  beautiful  grove,  on  a  point  of 
land  called  by  the  French  '  Pointc-au-Ccrf'  (Stag  Point). 
The  Sioux  name  for  the  prairie  is  Huppanokutey  ;  or,  by 
contraction,  Huppankutey  ;  meaning,  where  they  hit  at  the 
elk. 

"  We  reach  now  a  country  differing  essentially  from  that 
previously  described,  both  in  respect  to  its  climate  and  soil, 
and,  consequently,  in  its  natural  productions.  Whatever  it 
may  lose,  however,  in  estimation  of  the  agriculturist,  is  fully 
compensated  to  the  geologist,  who  discovers  within  it  the 
beginning  of  the  great  cretaceous  formation  that  underlies  the 
hydrographical  basin  of  the  Upper  Missouri." 

The  lakes  of  this  country  could  not  even  be  named,  for 
their  multitude.  A  brief  description  of  each  of  llicm  would 
make  a  large  volume.  They  exceed  in  nu tuber  five  or  six 
hundred.  A  description  of  one  of  the  largest,  and  remarka- 
ble also  for  the  qualities  of  its  water,  called  Mini-wakan,  is 
subjoined  from  the  report  of  Nicollet,  frequently  quoted 
before.  It  is  nearly  in  the  northwest  portion  of  the  valley. 
A  body  of  water,  called  by  the  French,  Mille  Lacs  (the 
Thousand  Lakes),  is  about  fifteen  miles  in  diameter,  nearly 
round,  situated  east  of  and  near  to  the  Missisippi. 

"  The  appearance  of  Mini  Wakan  Lake  did  not  realize  the 
anticipations  we  had  been  led  to  form  of  it  from  popu- 
lar account.  The  lake  is  on  the  plateau  of  the  Shayen-oju, 
and  is  surrounded  by  swells  and  hills,  varying  in  height  from 
twenty  to  250  feet,  that  so  project  into  it  as  not  to  permit  its 
whole  expanse  to  be  seen  but  from  one  spot,  which  I  shall 
presently  describe. 

"The  prominent  hill-top,  previously  alluded  to  by  the 
name  of  Miniwakan-chaiite,  is  the  only  beacon  to  the  travel- 
ler leading  to  the  lake  ;  but  even  from  its  summits  no  idea 


56  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

can  be  f  onncd  of  this  beautiful  sheet  of  water.  He  must  go 
to  a  smaller  eminence,  knowTi  as  the  Butte  du  Mileau  by  the 
French  voyageurs,  whence  alone  the  eye  can  take  in  the 
principal  contours  of  the  lake. 

"  The  greatest  extension  of  Devil's  Lake  is  at  least  forty 
miles — ^but  may  be  more,  as  we  did  not,  and  could  not, 
ascertain  the  end  of  the  northw^est  bay,  which  I  left  undefined 
on  the  map.  It  is  bordered  by  hills  that  are  pretty  well 
wooded  on  one  side,  but  furrowed  by  ravines  and  coulees, 
that  are  taken  advantage  of  by  warlike  parties,  both  for 
attack  and  defence,  according  to  circumstances.  The  lake 
itself  is  so  filled  up  with  islands  and  promontories,  that,  in 
travelling  along  its  shores,  it  is  only  occasionally  that  one  gets 
a  glimpse  of  its  expanse.  This  description  belongs  only  to 
its  wooded  side  ;  for,  on  the  opposite  side,  the  shores,  though 
still  bounded  by  hills,  are  destitute  of  trees,  so  as  to  exhibit 
an  embankment  to  the  east  from  ten  to  twelve  miles  long, 
upon  an  average  breadth  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  The 
average  breadth  of  the  lake  may  be  laid  down  at  fifteen 
miles.  Its  waters  appear  to  be  the  drainings  of  the  surround- 
ing hills.  We  discovered  no  outlets  in  the  whole  extent  of 
about  tlnree-quarters  of  its  contour  we  could  explore.  At  all 
events,  if  there  be  any,  they  do  not  empty  into  the  Red  River 
of  the  North,  since  the  lake  is  shut  up  in  that  direction,  and 
since  we  found  its  true  geographical  position  to  be  much 
more  to  the  north  than  it  is  ordinarily  laid  down  upon  maps. 
A  single  depression  at  its  lower  end  would  intimate  that,  in 
times  of  high  water,  some  discharge  might  possibly  take 
place  ;  but  then  it  w^ould  be  into  the  Shayen-oju. 

"As  to  the  natural  history  of  the  waters  of  the  Mini- 
wakan,  it  is  shortly  told.  They  are  too  brackish  to  be 
drunk,  excepting  by  horses,  who  swallow  them  with  avidity  ; 
ihey  have  a  deeper  green  color  than  those  of  the  neighboring 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  57 

lakes  that  arc  not  salt.  I  had  no  means  of  ascertaining  the 
density  of  the  water  of  this  lake  ;  but  having  caused  several 
gallons  of  it  to  be  evaporated  by  distillation,  I  subsequently 
made  an  analysis  of  the  residue,  wliich  proved  to  be  a  mix- 
ture of  sulphates  and  hydrochlorates  of  soda  and  magnesia." 

The  true  meaning  of  the  name  is  undoubtedly  neither  En- 
chanted, nor  Devil  (as  Mr.  Nicollet  calls  it) ;  but  medicinal, 
or,  as  we  usually  call  it,  Mineral  Lake.  This  is  evident 
both  by  Mr.  Nicollet's  description,  who  says  he  analyzed  it 
and  found  it  to  contain  soda  and  magnesia  in  sulphates,  and 
by  his  own  translation  of  the  same  word  when  applied  to  a 
river  and  a  hill.  In  describing  East  Medicine  River  (which 
is  the  English  name  he  applies  to  it),  he  says,  it  derives  its 
name  from  a  beautiful  hill  on  its  right  bank,  called  by  tlie 
Sioux  Pahah-wakan,  translated  by  the  voyageurs,  "  Butte  de 
Medicine,"  and,  in  English,  "  Medicine  Hillock."  The  lat- 
ter word  in  the  name  is  the  same  in  each.  One  in  conjunc- 
tion with  mini,  water  ;  the  other  with  pahah,  hill.  The  lake 
should  therefore  be  called  Mineral  Lake  ;  and  the  hill  which 
they  name  Mini  Wakan  Chante  is  Mineral  Lake  Heart. 
The  Dacota  word  Wakan,  in  the  vocabulary  given  by  Major 
Long,  is  interpreted  ''  mysterious  medicine." 

There  is  one  feature  in  the  scenery  of  this  countr}^,  rather 
too  partial  and  confined,  perhaps,  to  be  worthy  of  an  extended 
notice,  but  yet  certainly  too  remarkable  to  be  entirely  passed 
over.  In  some  places  the  limestone  stands  out  iiigh  above 
the  surroundinir  surface,  isolated  and  naked,  in  the  form  and 
appearance  of  great  mural  escarpments,  sometimes  looking 
like  an  okl  castle  or  tower.  About  the  Tt-te  des  Morts,  in 
Jackson  County,  and  near  Dubu(|ue,  on  the  Catfisii,  and  on 
the  Little  Maquoqueta,  in  ihc  settled  portion  of  Iowa,  are 
some  of  these  appearances.  On  iiU  1  Ionian,  or  Canoe  River, 
there  is  one  very  remarkable  specimen  of  this  work,  in  a 

4* 


58  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

heap  of  disintegrated  sandstone,  thirty-six  feet  high,  four 
miles  north  of  the  river.  Another,  on  the  VermilUon,  called 
the  castle,  twelve  miles  north  of  the  latter,  on  the  Iowa  side 
of  the  river.     In  Wisconsin  they  are  more  frequent. 

The  points  most  particularly  interesting  on  account  of 
scenery,  in  this  country,  are  the  Rock  River  Rapids  on  the 
Missisippi,  Lake  Pepin,  St.  Peter's  Station,  the  Falls  of  St. 
Anthony,  and  the  point  of  the  peninsula  between  Lakes  Su- 
perior and  Michigan.  It  is  scarcely  possible,  says  Charle- 
voix, speaking  of  this  last,  to  sec  a  more  beautiful  country 
than  this  tongue  of  land.  It  is  terminated  by  a  handsome 
river,  Manistic,  which  is  full  of  fish  of  all  kinds. 

This  description  of  the  physical  geography  of  the  country, 
will  not  present  a  clear  and  vivid  picture  to  one  who  has  not 
seen  a  similar,  but  who  has  been  confined  to  a  forest  or  a 
mountain  scenery.  The  mighty  rivers  of  this  region  must 
be  measured  by  travel,  the  prairies  must  be  crossed,  and  the 
lakes  be  mirrored  to  the  eye,  before  the  mind  comprehends 
the  terms  of  the  description. 

"  To  look  at  a  prairie  up  or  down,"  says  Nicollet,  "  to 
ascend  one  of  its  undulations  ;  to  reach  a  small  plateau  (or, 
as  the  voyageurs  call  it,  di  prairie  planch  t),  moving  from  wave 
to  wave  over  alternate  swells  and  depressions  ;  and,  finally, 
to  reach  the  vast  interminable  low  prairie  that  extends  itself 
in  front, — be  it  for  hours,  days,  or  weeks,  one  never  tires  ; 
pleasurable  and  exhilarating  sensations  are  all  the  time  felt ; 
ennui  is  never  experienced.  Doubtless  there  are  moments 
when  excessive  heat,  a  want  of  fresh  water,  and  other  priva- 
tions, remind  one  that  life  is  toil  ;  but  these  drawbacks  are 
of  short  duration.  There  is  almost  always  a  breeze  over 
them.  The  security  one  feels  in  knowing  that  there  arc  no 
concealed  dangers  ;  so  vast  is  the  extent  which  the  eye  takes 
ni ;  no  difficulties  of  road  ;  a  far  spreading  verdure,  relieved 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  59 

by  a  profusion  of  variously  colored  flowers  ;  llie  azure  of  the 
sky  above,  or  the  tempest  that  can  be  seen  from  its  begin- 
ning to  its  end  ;  the  beautiful  modifications  of  the  changing 
clouds  ;  the  curious  looming  of  objects  between  earth  and 
sky,  taxing  the  ingenuity  every  moment  to  rectify  ; — all, 
everything,  is  calculated  to  excite  the  perceptions,  and  keep 
ahve  the  imagination.  In  the  summer  season,  especially, 
everjrthing  upon  the  prairies  is  cheerful,  graceful,  and 
animated.  The  Indians,  with  herds  of  deer,  antelope,  and 
buffalo,  give  life  and  motion  to  them.  It  is  then  they  should 
be  visited ;  and  I  pity  the  man  whose  soul  could  remain 
uimioved  under  such  a  scene  of  excitement." 


> 


PART  II. 


HISTORY. 

The  History  of  this  country,  though  modern,  brief,  and 
scanty  in  incident,  is  yet  mixed  with  fable.  It  was  early 
visited  by  the  French  voyageurs  and  missionaries  from 
Canada ;  but  the  object  of  the  voyageurs  was  trade  and 
gain  ;  and  while  their  talent  lay  not  in  vnriting,  their  interest 
probably  prompted  them  to  withhold,  rather  than  blazon,  the 
discoveries  which  they  made.  Gabriel  Sagard,  a  Franciscan 
missionary,  if  he  is  to  be  believed,  was  in  the  country  of  the 
Hurons,  about  the  Lake  of  that  name,  as  early  as  1624,  and 
went  as  far  as  Mackina.  French  missionaries  were  settled  in 
Michigan  in  1634.  In  1634,  we  learn  from  Charlevoix,  Brc- 
boeuf  and  Daniel,  missionaries  were  with  the  Hurons  ;  and 
about  eight  years  after,  it  is  stated  by  the  same  good  authority 
that  others  went  to  the  Sault  St.  Marie. 

About  the  same  time  (1642)  some  Jesuits  received  a  depu- 
tation of  the  Saulteurs,  who  invited  them  to  go  into  their 
country.  These  savages  then  occupied  the  country  about  a 
rapid  which  is  in  a  strait  by  which  Lake  Superior  is  discharg- 
ed into  Huron.  It  has  since  been  named  Sault  St.  Marie. 
The  missionaries  were  pleased  with  the  opj)ortunily  of  know- 
ing the  country,  which  none  of  them  hud  ever  traversed. 
Father  Isaac  Jogues  and  Charles  Raimbaut  were  sent  to 


62  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

attend  the  deputies  of  the  Saulteurs  ;  and  their  voyage  had 
all  the  success  that  they  could  reasonably  expect.  They 
were  well  received  by  the  savages,  who  seemed  to  them  to 
be  a  very  good  people. 

Father  Mesnard,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  it  is  related,  was 
with  the  Indians  on  Lake  Superior  in  1661,  and  in  1665 
Alouez,  a  missionary  of  the  same  order,  traversed  the  same, 
and  the  other  northern  lakes  ;  and  in  1668  he,  with  Dablon 
and  Marquette,  formed  a  missionary  settlement  at  Sault  St. 
Marie.  I  think  this  event  is  placed  by  Mr.  Bancroft  in  1669. 
In  the  same  year  other  missions  were  estabhshed  by  the 
Jesuits  in  the  country  near  the  Lakes. 

These  enterprises  made  know^n  the  country,  and  in  1671  Mr. 
Talon,  the  king's  lieutenant  of  Canada,  took  measures  to 
secure  the  dominion  of  France  over  all  the  northwest.  For 
this  purpose  he  selected  Nicholas  Perrot,  a  man  of  good  ca- 
pacity and  education,  and  having  furnished  him  with  a  suffi- 
cient force,  and  given  him  the  proper  instructions,  sent  him 
forth  on  his  expedition.  Perrot  went  as  far  west  as  Chica- 
go, at  the  bottom  of  the  Lake  Illinois,  now  called  Lake 
Michigan,  where  the  Miamies  were  then  residing,  and  visited 
all  the  northern  nations  with  whom  the  French  at  that  time 
had  any  trade,  and  invited  them  to  meet  him  in  the  following 
spring  at  the  Sault  St.  Marie.  At  this  Congress  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  north  were  present,  by  their  delegates,  except 
the  Mascoutins,  Kickapous,  and  Illinois,  to  whom,  for  want 
of  time,  notice  of  the  meeting  was  not  given.  The  Illinois 
were  then  on  the  Missisippi.  The  Sieur  St.  Lusson  arrived 
at  Sault  St.  Marie  in  May,  charged  with  a  special  commis- 
sion to  take  possession  of  all  the  country  occupied  by  these 
people,  and  to  receive  them  under  the  protection  of  the  king. 
The  ceremonies  on  the  occasion  were  an  address  by  Perrot, 
the  erection  of  a  cedar  post  and  a  cross,  with  a  declaration 


HISTORY.  63 

by  St.  Lusson  of  the  act  of  taking  possession,  and  of  the 
protection  of  the  king. — (Chad.  Hist,  dc  Nouv.  Fr.) 

This  was  the  first  political  event  that  transpired  in  the  lake 
country,  in  which  Europeans  were  parties  ;  the  former  inter- 
course witli  tlie  country  having  been  for  tlic  purposes  of  trade 
or  of  reliijion.  And  as  it  is  the  first,  so  it  is  also  one  of  the 
most  important  political  epochs  in  its  history.  It  diflcrs  also 
from  prior  pages  in  being  authenticated,  while  the  events 
that  are  said  to  have  preceded  it,  as  well  as  some  subsequent 
relations  of  discoveries  beyond  the  lakes,  to  the  west,  must 
be  considered  as  apocryphal,  or  rejected  as  wholly  spurious. 

Mr.  Talon,  having  been  very  active  in  setting  on  foot  ex- 
peditions for  discovery  in  the  north  and  west,  and  in  extend- 
ing the  dominion  of  France  over  the  nations  inhabiting  or 
rather  roaming  over  those  countries,  was  anxious  to  discover 
the  sources,  course,  direction,  character,  and  outlet  of  a  great 
river  which  had  been  mentioned  to  the  French  by  the  Indi- 
ans, and  which  was  supposed  to  reach  the  sea  on  the  west,  or 
to  fall  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south.  This  river 
was  called  by  the  Indians  Massa-sepo,  or  Missi-sipi,  great 
river.  For  this  purpose  he  sent  father  Marquette,  a  Jesuit, 
who  had  been  at  Sault  St.  Marie,  with  Jolict,  a  citizen  of 
Quebec,  and  two  or  three  voyagcurs,  to  ascertain  the  truth 
of  their  representations.  Talon,  at  his  own  request,  was 
recalled  in  1072,  and  the  discovery  of  the  river,  which  has 
been  imputed  to  Marquette,  though  it  may  be  doubted,  and 
the  more  extended  discoveries  of  Ileimepin,  Tonti,  and  La 
Sale,  La  Hontan  and  La  Sueur,  were  accomplished  under 
the  government  of  his  successor.  Count  de  Frontenac. 

Whether  Marquette  ever,  in  fact,  performed  the  service  to 
which  he  had  been  appointed  by  Talon,  and  actually  discov- 
ered the  Missisippi,  must  be  considered  rallior  apocryphal. 
It  is  not  to  be  stated  as  an  authentic  event,  or  as  one,  even. 


64  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST 

demanding  the  credence  usually  given  to  the  higher  class  of 
probabilities. 

Marquette  himself  never  returned  to  Quebec  to  give  a  re- 
lation of  his  voyage,  but  remained  a  year  or  two,  after  the 
supposed  time  of  its  occurrence,  among  the  Indians  living 
about  Lake  IlHnois  (now  Michigan),  and  died  there  in  1675. 
It  is  generally  stated  that  notes  of  the  voyage  were  not  pre- 
served by  himself  or  his  companion.     His  patron.  Talon,  had 
gone  to  France  before  he  went  (if  he  did  go  at  all)  to  the 
Missisippi.     The  brief  narrative  that  has  been  published  of 
their  supposed  voyage,  does  not  name  the  point  from  which 
they  embarked,  on  or  near  the  Strait  of  Machinac.     It  was 
not  published  till  after  the  upper  Missisippi  had  been  explored 
by  Hennepin  and   La  Sale.     It  gives  no  particulars  which 
were  not  made  known  by  them  ;    and  there  is  much  dis- 
crepancy as  to  the  time  when  the  voyage  is  alleged  to  have 
been  performed.     In  the  relation  published  in  the  name  of 
Marquette,  it  is  stated  that  they  embarked  on  the  13tli  of 
May,   1673,  and  arrived  at  the  Missisippi  on  the   17th  of 
June.     The  statement  published  in  the  name  of  Joliet  dates 
the  arrival  at  the  Missisippi  the  15th  of  June,  1674,  differing 
both  in  the  year  and  the  day.     Heriot,  again,  states  it  to  have 
taken  place  in  June,  1672.     Book-making  was  then,  as  now, 
a  trade  at  Paris,  Amsterdam,  and  London  ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  few  brief  pages  annexed  to  Hennepin,  Description 
d'une  nouvclle  pays,  &c.,  purporting  to  be  the  statement  of 
Marquette  and  Joliet,  and  the  whole  of  the  volume  was  a 
work  manufactured  by  some  author  to  suit  the  reading  mar- 
ket of  the  time.     Such  was  the  case  with  the  work  ascribed 
to  the  Chevalier  Tonti,  the  companion  of  La  Sale,  who,  when 
the  work  was  mentioned  to  him  by  Mr.  Iberville,  denied 
having  any  hand  in  it,  saying,  it  was  apparently  written  by 


HISTORY.  65 

some  adventurer,  who,  having  some  defective  notes  of  the 
country,  had  pubhshed  tliem  under  his  name. 

In  addition  to  the  otlicr  circumstances  which  make  the 
authenticity  of  the  relation  pul)hshed  as  Marquette's  doubtful, 
Lochman,  who  pul)lislicd  a  collection  of  the  travels  of  the 
Jesuits,  printed  in  London,  in  1743,  makes  no  mention  of  the 
pretended  voyage  of  Marquette — but  in  his  preface  he  has 
this  remark  :  "  The  Jesuits  have  been  proved  to  exaggerate 
so  greatly  in  their  accounts,  to  give  so  much  into  tlic  marvel- 
lous, and  to  assert  so  many  falsities,  that,  like  the  sliephcrd's 
boy  in  the  fable,  many  people  wont  believe  them,  even  when 
they  do  speak  the  truth.  For  this  reason  I  judge  it  neces- 
sary to  examine  their  relations  very  carefully,  and  to  com- 
pare them  with  those  of  such  travellers  as  are  in  the  great- 
est repute  for  their  veracity  and  talents."  The  omission  by 
so  judicious  a  compiler  to  include  in  his  work  a  narrative  of 
so  important  a  discovery  as  that  of  the  Missisippi  River,  witli 
remarks  like  the  foregoing,  coupled  with  the  facts,  that  Mar- 
quette's journal  was  said  to  be  lost,  and  that  in  tlie  narrative 
published  as  his,  no  particular  descriptions  are  given,  shows 
that  the  relation  ascribed  to  Marquette  was,  as  above  sup- 
posed, considered  spurious,  or  that,  if  genuine,  it  was  includ- 
ed in  that  class  of  travels  that  were  unwortliy  of  belief. 

The  supposition  applied  to  this,  that  it  was  the  work  of  a 
literary  speculator,  may  be  also  extended  to  the  second 
volume  of  Hennepin,  as  already  hinted.  But  there  is  more 
probability  in  favor  of  his  first  volume.  Indeed,  the  fact  that 
he  ascended  the  Upper  Missisippi  in  KiSO  is  beyond  doul)t ; 
and  it  is  quite  probable  tliat  he  was  the  first  discoverer  of  that 
river.  Before,  however,  entering  upon  the  relation  of  his 
very  important  expedition,  the  substance  of  the  relation  of 
Manpiette  will  be  given,  which,  whether  true  or  not,  yet, 
having  been  frequently  referred  to  by  writers  as  credible,  and 


66  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

particularly  in  a  late  history  of  this  country,  by  an  author  of 
much  literary  fame,*  I  should  not  feel  warranted  to  lay  aside 
as  condemned,  and  wholly  to  omit. 

One  other  step,  also,  in  the  progress  of  discovery  in  this 
region  precedes  both  the  voyage  of  Hemiepin  and  that  of 
Marquette.  In  the  year  before  Marquette's  voyage,  that  is, 
in  1672  or  1673,  Claude  xllouez  and  Dablon,  the  two  mis- 
sionaries who  had  been  with  him  in  1668  at  the  Sault, 
ascended  the  Fox  River.  In  passing  up  the  river,  they  per- 
ceived, on  the  banks  of  the  rapids,  a  kind  of  idol,  very  badly 
formed,  and  which  appeared  rather  as  a  freak  of  nature, 
where  they  had  expected  to  find  a  work  of  art.  It  was  a 
rock,  whose  summit,  at  a  distance,  appeared  to  be  in  the  Hke- 
ness  of  a  man's  head  ;  and  the  savages  had  taken  it  for  the 
tutelar}^  deity  of  their  country.  They  had  painted  it  all  sorts 
of  colors,  and  never  passed  it  without  offering  tobacco, 
arrows,  or  something  else.  The  missionaries,  to  satisfy  the 
Indians  of  the  impotence  of  their  pretended  divinity,  over- 
turned the  stone  into  the  river." — Char.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  250. 

On  the  13th  of  May,  1673,  Father  Marquette,  a  Jesuit, 
embarked,  as  the  relation  says,  with  Mr.  Joliet,  a  citizen  of 
Quebec,  who  was  the  director  of  the  expedition,  and  five 
other  Frenchmen,  at  some  point  on  or  near  the  Strait  of 
Mackinac,  which  is  not  named,  and  arrived  at  the  Bay  of 
Puans  (Green  Bay),  at  a  village  inhabited  by  Kikapoos, 
Miamis,  and  Mascoutins,  where  they  obtained  guides,  who 
accompanied  them  on  their  way  as  far  as  the  Wisconsin 
River ;  and  passing  down  the  Wisconsin  (miscalled,  in  the 
relation,  the  Mesconsin),  they  arrived  on  the  Missisippi  on 
the  17th  of  June.  They  proceeded  down  the  river,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Wisconsin,  more  than  one  hundred  leagues, 

•  Bancroft. — History  of  the  United  States 


HISTORY.  67 

without  exploring  the  country,  or  seeing  any  of  its  inha- 
bitants, so  far  as  mentioned,  except  that,  three  days  after 
leaving  the  Wisconsin,  they  discovered  a  much  better  coun- 
try; when,  on  the  25lh  of  June,  being  the  eighth  day  of  their 
travel  on  the  Missisippi,  they  went  ashore,  and  found  some 
fresh  traces  of  men  upon  the  sand,  and  a  path  which  led  to  a 
prairie.  The  men  remained  in  the  boat,  and  Marquette  and 
Joliet  followed  the  path  till  they  discovered  a  village  on  the 
banks  of  a  river,  and  two  other  villages  on  a  hill,  within  half 
a  league  of  the  first,  inhabited  by  Illinois  Indians,  It  is  not 
stated  on  which  side  of  the  Missisippi  the  river  was  found, 
nor  is  it  described  by  any  name,  or  otherwise  designated  by 
the  travellers.  Mr.  Bancroft  supposes  it  to  have  been  the 
Dcs  Moins.  This  river,  in  fact,  flows  into  the  Missisippi,  at 
about  the  distance  mentioned. 

The  relation  makes  mention  of  passing  the  river  Peckita- 
noni,  as  the  Missouri  was  then  called,  and  the  Ohio,  called  by 
them  the  Ouabouskigou,  the  name  of  the  Wabash  being  pre- 
served till  its  junction  with  the  Missisippi.  The  Chuoanous 
(Shawnees)  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Wabash,  the  relation  in- 
forms us,  wdio  are  said  to  be  so  numerous,  that  they  have  thirty- 
eight  villages  on  the  river.  They  descended  the  river  as  low  as 
lat.  33°,  where  they  found  a  village  of  the  Arkansas ;  and  being 
satisfied  that  the  river  flowed  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  they 
turned  their  course  up  the  stream,  and,  ascending  the  river, 
they  passed  through  the  Illinois  to  the  Lake.  Their  rela- 
tion gives  the  distance  from  the  Pckitanoni  (or  Missouri) 
to  the  Ouabouskigou  (or  Ohio)  at  twenty  leagues.  The 
actual  distance  is  two  hundred  miles.  So  great  a  mis- 
take could  hardly  be  made  by  a  person  who  had  been 
over  the  ground.  Nothing  whatever  is  stated  in  relation  to 
tlie  country  traversed,  which  was  through  nine  degrees 
and  a  half  of  latitude,  and,  by  the  windings  of  the  stream, 


68  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

one  thousand  miles,  or  more,  except  finding  the  three  rivers, 
Des  Moines,  Missouri,  and  Ohio,  and  Indian  villages  at  three 
points  on  the  river.* 

*  The  foregoing  is  abstracted  from  a  narrative  appended  to  the  work  pub- 
lished in  the  name  of  Hennepin,  called  "  Nouvelle  Decouverte  d'une  Pays 
vaste,"  and  comprising  twenty-six  pages.  Marquette's  relation  is  said, 
by  Charlevoix,  to  be  contained  in  the  "  Recueil  des  Voyages  of  Thevenot," 
printed  in  Paris  in  16S7.  I  have  not  seen  Thevenot,  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  relation  referred  to  is  the  same  as  that  from  which  the  above  is  abridged. 
But  all  relations  put  forth  under  the  name  of  Marquette  must  be  considered 
apocryphal. 

Additional  JVote. — The  relation  as  contained  in  Thevenot  has  just  been 
published  in  Paris.     It  is  the  same  referred  to  above.     It  is  impossible 
to  conceive  that  a  person  who  has  made  a  discovery  so  important,  should 
pass,  for  the  space  of  one  thousand  miles,  down  this  noble  and  majestic 
stream,  in  itself  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  and  then  new  to  all  the 
world   save  himself  and  a  few  hunting  bands  of  Indians,  and  possessing 
some  very  remarkable  peculiarities;  and  should,  in  a  volume  expressly 
designed  to  communicate  his  great  discovery  to  the  world,  have  given  such 
a  meagre  account  of  it ;  passing  the  two  chains  of  rapids  without  intimat- 
ing or  apparently  knowing  that  such  were  on  the  river ;  naming  none 
of  the  eight  considerable  rivers  coming  in  from  the  west,  nor  those  on  the 
other  side,  except  three  of  the  principal  streams  which  might  be  known 
by  accounts  given  by  the  Indians.     The  book  states  but  two  items  in  rela- 
tion to  the  country— that  there  was  a  chain  of  very  high  mountains  on  its 
bank,  immediately  below  the  Wisconsin  ;  which  is  an  error,  there  being 
no  such  chain.     The  only  elevation  here  is  Pike's  Mountain,  and  that  but 
little  more  than  two  hundred  feet  above  the  common  level.     The  other  is 
the  distance  from  Missouri  River  to  Ohio,  two  hundred  miles,  said  to  be 
twenty  leagues.     While  everything  is  omitted  that  would  naturally  be  told, 
the  volume  relates  that  they  saw  geese  and  swans  without  feathers,  as  these 
birds  had  a  fashion  of  shedding  them  at  this  season ;  and  also  monstrous 
fish,  and  other  monsters.     Beside  all  this,  it  is  known  that  Marquette  never 
went  east  of  Lake  Michigan  after  the  pretended  voyage,  but  died  on  the 
lake  about  two  years  after.     And  the  relation  under  his  name  was  not  pub- 
lished till  eight  years  after  the  voyage,  and  a  year  or  more  after  the  disco- 
very by  Hennepin,  and  then  came  forward  to  fill  up  a  desideratum  in  a 
collection  of  voyages  published  by  Thevenot,  which  could  not  decently 
appear  without  a  notice  of  this  river,  the  discovery  of  which   had  then 


HISTORY.  69 

Soon  after  ihc  lime  Avlicn  tliis  expcclilion  is  slated  to  liave 
happened,  Mr.  Robert  Cavalier  de  la  Sale  was  appointed  by 
the  king  of  France  to  conduct  an  expedition,  and  make  dis- 
coveries in  llie  north-western  parts  of  North  America.  Mr. 
Tonti  was  associated  with  him  in  the  enterprise.-  On  the  7th 
of  August,  1679,  they  eml)arked  with  Father  Louis  Henne- 
pin, a  Franciscan  missionary,  and  two  other  priests  and  thirty 
men,  on  board  a  small  vessel  which  La  Sale  hud  Iniilt,  at  a 
short  distance  above  the  Fulls  of  Niagara,  and  commenced 
the  voyage.  They  proceeded  up  lakes  Erie,  St.  Clair,  and 
Huron,  and  passed  into  the  lake  called  Tllinouac  by  the  Li- 
dians,  Illinois  by  the  French,  and  now  known  as  Lake  Michi- 
gan. Lake  Erie  was  at  that  time  known  under  the  name  of 
Conty  ;  Huron  was  called  Orleans  ;  Michigan,  Dauphin  and 
Illinois  ;  Superior,  Conde  and  Tracy  ;  and  Ontario,  Fron- 
tenac. 

After  pursuing  the  voyage  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  Puans, 
now  called  Green  Bay,  La  Sale  sent  back  his  vessel  to  Nia- 
gara, while  himself  and  his  associates  proceeded  to  the 
Southern  part  of  the  lake,  where  by  appointment  they  were 
to  await  the  return  of  the  vessel.  The  ship  however 
foundered  on  the  lake,  and  nothing  was  afterwards  heard  of 
vessel  or  crew. 

La  Sale  und  his  remaining  associates  coasted  southward 
along  the  western  shore  of  the  lake  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  a 
river  designated  by  Hennepin  as  the  river  of  the  Miamis, 
now  called  St.  Joseph's,  which  was  the  point  agreed  upon 
between  them  and  their  companions  who  hud  departed  in  the 
ship,  as  the  place  of  rendezvous,  and  where  they  were  to  be 

become  known.  Further:  the  express  object  of  La  Sale's  expedition  was 
to  discover  the  Missisippi — which  could  not  have  been  if  it  had  been 
already  discovered,  as  pretended,  six  years  before  he  undertook  it,  by  his 
own  countrymen,  under  the  direction  of  his  own  government. 


70  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

joined  by  some  of  tlieir  company  whom  llicy  had  left  at 
Mackinac.  Here  they  buiU  a  fort.  They  then  passed  up 
the  river  as  far  as  the  point  where  a  narrow  portage  of  about 
a  league  divides  it  from  the  Kankake  or  southern  branch  of 
the  Illinois  River,  where  they  crossed  to  the  stream  last 
named.  Tliis  branch  of  the  Illinois  was  called  by  the 
Indians  Theakeke,  wolf,  because  the  tribe  of  Indians  called 
by  that  name,  commonly  known  as  the  Mahingans,  dwelt 
there.  The  mode  of  speaking  it  by  the  French  was  Kiakiki, 
and  became  corrupted  to  Kankake.  From  the  point  of  land- 
ing on  the  Miami  River  the  portage  extended  over  a  wet 
champaign  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  source  of  the  Thea- 
keke, on  which,  at  a  village  inhabited  by  Miamis,  Mascotins, 
and  Ouiatinons,  the  hardy  and  intrepid  voyagers  launched 
their  bark  canoes  to  descend  by  the  Illinois  and  Missisippi 
Rivers,  only  heard  of,  but  unknown  before,  through  vast  re- 
gions of  unrevealed  and  doubtful  country,  whose  forest  and 
prairie  might  then,  so  far  as  known  to  them,  receive  for  tlie 
first  time  the  foot  of  man,  or  might  resound  with  the  yell  of 
the  lurking  and  blood-loving  Indian.  The  Theakeke  springs 
out  of  lands  which  are  so  miry  that  a  person  can  scarcely 
w^alk  over  them.  And  the  country,  for  a  gi"eat  extent,  upon 
the  river,  is  of  the  same  description.  "  That  country,"  says 
the  relation,  "  is  nothing  but  marshes,  full  of  alder  trees  and 
rushes,  and  we  could  have  hardly  found,  for  forty  leagues  to- 
gether, any  place  to  plant  our  cabins,  had  it  not  l^cen  for  the 
frost,  which  made  the  earth  more  firm  and  solid."  Tlie  com- 
pany had  taken  their  departure  from  the  Fort  at  tlie  moutli  of 
the  8t.  Joseph's,  or  River  of  the  Miamis,  on  Lake  Michigan, 
on  the  3d  day  of  Dec,  1679,  and  it  was  near  the  close  of  the 
same  month  when  they  arrived  at  tlic  village  of  the  Illinois, 
on  the  river  of  that  name,  a  distance  of  more  tlian  one 
huncked  leagues  from  the  Fort.     In  this  journey,  after  pass- 


HISTORY.  71 

ing  througli  the  great  marshes  already  mentioned,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Theakcke,  they  came  to  a  vast  plain  on 
Avhich  nolliing  grows  but  i^rass  and  weeds,  wliich  at  that 
time  were  dry  and  burnt,  it  l)eing  tlic  custom  of  the  Miamis 
to  set  them  on  fire  every  year  for  hunting  the  buffalo.  From 
this,  it  appears  that  the  ainiual  burning  of  the  prairies  is  an 
ancient  practice  of  the  Indians.  It  is  supposed  to  be  owing 
to  this  custom  that  those  large  tracts  in  the  west  are  desti- 
tute of  timber. 

The  travellers  embarked  again  at  the  Illinois  village,  and 
continued  to  fall  down  the  river  for  four  days  longer,  when, 
on  tiie  first  day  of  January,  1680,  they  came  into  and 
passed  through  a  lake  which  is  described  as  seven  leagues  in 
length  and  one  broad,  and  was  called  by  the  Indians  "  Pimi- 
teoui"  (pimitewi),  that  is,  a  place  where  there  is  an  abwi- 
dance  of  fat  bcaats — a  common  way  of  describing  a  place  by 
them  ;  as  Missi  limachinac,  a  great  plenty  of  turtle.  This 
lake  is  that  enlargement  of  the  river  now  known  to  the 
western  settlers  and  travellers  as  Lake  Peoria.  It  is  said  in 
the  nan'ative  that  the  river  never  freezes  below  the  lake. 

There  was  a  village  of  the  Illinois  Indians  at  this  lake, 
who  endeavored  to  dissuade  tlie  travellers  from  their  design 
of  descending  the  Missisippi  and  navigating  that  stream  ; — 
representing  it  as  inhabited  by  very  ferocious  tribes  of  savages, 
iilled  with  formidable  animals,  full  of  rocks  and  rapids  to- 
wards its  mouth,  whicli  f;dls  into  a  hideous -and  bottomless 
gulf,  and  horrid  whirlpool,  that  swallows  up  everything  com- 
ing witliin  reach  of  its  force.  The  travellers  remained  witli 
these  Indians  some  time,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  lake  they 
built  a  fort,  which  La  Sale  called  Crevecoeur,  and  to  which 
the  Indians  gave  the  name  of  Chicago.  Terror  of  the 
Indians,  and  the  hardships  and  perils  of  the  travel,  had  caused 
the  desertion  of  several  of  his  men.     He  had  lost  his  ves- 


72  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

sel,  and  the  lives  of  others  had  been  sacrificed  with  that  acci- 
dent, and  lie  was  surrounded  with  perils  and  difficulties. 
These  circumstances  of  grief  and  disappointment  may  have 
suggested  the  name  which  he  gave  to  his  fort.* 

Thus  far,  however,  though  having  had  perils  to  encounter, 
and  having  experienced  some  disappointments,  they  were  not 
greater  than  might  be  anticipated  in  such  an  undertaking.  It 
was  now,  also,  mid  winter,  and  they  had  to  encounter  the 
rigors  of  a  northern  climate.  Yet  their  undertaking  was  not 
frustrated,  and  they  had  information  of  a  better  state  of  things 
before  them.  They  learned,  by  conversation  with  other  In- 
dians, that  the  dangers  of  which  they  had  been  told  by  the 
Illinois  did  not  exist,  but  that  the  Missisippi  was  in  fact  navi- 
gable from  its  source,  and  was  inhabited  by  well  disposed 
Indians  who  would  offer  them  the  pipe  of  peace. 

La  Sale  therefore  resolved  on  pursuing  his  enterprise,  and 
took  his  measures  accordingly.  He  directed  father  Heinie- 
pin  to  proceed  to  the  Missisippi  with  two  of  the  company, 

*  Fort  Crevecceur  was  built  upon  an  elevated  site  on  the  bank  of  the 
river,  the  exact  location  of  which  may  be  determined  by  the  following  ex- 
tract, which  probably  has  relation  to  the  same  spot,  from  Mr.  Patrick 
Kennedy's  Journal  of  an  expedition  undertaken  by  himself  and  several 
coureurs  de  bois,  in  the  year  1773.  The  journal  is  a  circumstantial  ac- 
count of  a  progress  up  the  Illinois  River.     He  says  : — 

"  August  7.  This  morning  being  very  foggy,  and  the  river  overgrown 
with  weeds  along  its  sides,  we  could  make  but  little  way.  About  12  o'clock 
we  got  to  the  old  Pioria  Fort  and  village,  on  the  Western  shore  of  the  river, 
and  at  the  southern  end  of  the  lake  called  tlie  Illinois  Lake,  which  is  nine- 
teen miles  and  a  half  in  length,  and  three  miles  in  breadth.  It  has  no 
rocks,  shoals,  or  perceivable  current.  We  found  the  stockades  of  this 
Pioria  Fort  destroyed  by  fire,  but  the  houses  standing.  The  summit  on 
which  the  fort  stood,  commands  a  fine  prospect  of  the  country  to  the  east- 
ward, and  up  the  lake  to  the  point  where  the  river  comes  in  at  the  north 
end."  He  gives  the  distance  from  the  mouth  at  210  miles,  and  above  Lake 
Demi  Quian  39  miles. 


HISTORY.  73 

while  himself,  with  three  others,  should  return  to  Fort  Fron- 
tenac,  where  they  had  first  embarked,  to  procure  some  further 
supplies  ;  and  that  tlie  Chevalier  Tonti,  with  the  rest  of  the 
men,  should  remain  to  garrison  the  fort  at  Crevecoeur.  Here 
he  remained  with  his  little  band  of  soldiers  for  many  years. 
The  companions  of  La  Sale,  in  the  subsequent  disastrous 
expedition  in  which  he  lost  his  life,  found  Tonti  still  at  the 
fort,  in  16S6,  and  La  Ilontan  also,  in  1689,  says  he  was  then 
residing  there,  when  he  returned  from  his  expedition  up  the 
St.  Peter's. 

Father  Hennepin,  accompanied  by  only  two  Frenchmen, 
Anthony  Auguel,  surnamed  Picard  du  Gay,  andMitchel  Ako, 
left  Fort  Crevecoeur  on  the  29th  February,  1689,  and  on  the 
7th  ]\Iarch,  reached  the  Missisippi.  Hennepin,  with  his  com- 
panions, proceeded  up  the  river  as  far  as  the  falls,  which  were 
named  by  him  St.  Anthony  of  Padua.  He  observed  the  Des 
Moines  River  (called  Otenta),  and  another  at  the  west,  which 
was  probably  St.  Peter's,  but  which  he  does  not  mention  by 
any  name.  This  river,  some  years  after  the  date  of  its  dis- 
covery, by  Hennepin,  received  the  name  of  St.  Pierre,  from 
a  trader  of  that  name,  who  resided  upon  it.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested, however,  that  the  true  name  of  this  river  is  "  Sans 
Pierres,"  without  stones  :  it  being  at  the  mouth  entirely  clear 
of  stones.  A  few  years  after  this  time,  the  Des  Moines,  or 
Otenta,  is  mentioned  in  the  maps  by  the  name  of  Moingona. 
He  found  also  the  Black  River,  on  the  east  side,  above  the 
\^'isconsin,  which  was  called  by  the  Sauteurs  (or  Chippe- 
was),  Sappah,  and  by  the  Naudowessiouns,  or  Sioux,  Cheba- 
deba.  And  above  the  Chebadeba,  he  entered  the  beautiful 
and  romantic  lake  which  he  called  the  Lac  des  Pleurs,  antl 
which  has  since  received  the  name  of  Lake  Pepin  *     The 

*  Major  Long  says  it  was  first  called   Lake  Pepin  in  the  manuscript  of 
Le  Sueur;  Charlevoix  calls  it  Bon  Secours, 

5 


74  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

travellers  proceeded  up  the  St.  Croix  River,  which  they 
called  Riviere  de  la  Tombeau,  because  an  Indian  grave  was 
there.  On  the  1 2th  of  April  they  were  captured  by  the  Isauti,* 
or  Chippewa  Indians,  and  were  unable  to  proceed  further 
than  the  St.  Francis  River.  They  were  informed  by  the 
Indians,  that  there  was  another  fall,  about  twenty  or  thirty 
leagues  above  St.  Anthony's,  near  which  lived  a  tribe  of  In- 
dians called  Tintonha,  or  prairie  Indians.  Having  remained 
two  or  three  months  in  captivity  they  passed  down  the  river, 
leaving  Alvo  behind,  and  ascending  the  Wisconsin,  passed 
down  the  Fox  River  to  the  Bay  of  Puans.  While  they  were 
passing  Lake  Pepin  with  their  Indian  captors,  a  council  was 
held  to  deliberate  on  putting  to  death  the  prisoners.  Those 
who  were  in  favor  of  this  design  cried  all  night,  as  is  custom- 
ary with  them  when  they  wish  to  prevail  on  their  companions 
to  consent  to  the  death  of  their  captives.  On  this  account  it 
was  named  by  them  Lac  des  Plcurs,  as  before  mentioned. 

Fatlier  Hennepin  must  undoubtedly  be  considered  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  Missisippi.  The  supposition  that  Marquette 
was  there  before  him,  may  or  may  not  be  in  accordance  with 
the  fact.  No  relation  was  given  of  it ;  no  information  or  ad- 
vantage appears  to  have  been  derived  from  it.  Wlien  La 
Sale  started  on  his  expedition  from  Fort  Frontenac,  it  seemed 
to  be  for  the  purpose  of  discovemng  a  river  known  only  to  the 
Indians,  not  of  merely  visiting  a  place  already  known.  It  is 
also  stated  in  the  volume  which  passes  as  the  second  work  of 


*  The  Indians  of  the  St.  Mary's  were  called  by  the  French,  Sauteurs 
(that  is,  Indians  of  the  falls)  of  St.  Mary's.  Those  who  dwelt  by  the  Falls 
.jf  St.  Anthony,  were  called  also  Sauteurs,  and  corruptly  Isati  (Esaute). 
They  are  the  Chippewas.  The  name  of  Naudouessies,  by  which  the  Sioux 
were  called,  was  probably  Nordouest,  applied  to  them  by  the  missionaries 
and  traders  of  Lakes  Superior  and  Mackinac,  who  had  been  acquainted 
with  them  some  years,  and  which  the  Indians  converted  into  Nordouessi. 


HISTORY.  75 

Hennepin  tlial  he  saw  Juliet  at  Quebec,  and  being  informed 
that  he  had  been  upon  tlie  Missisippi,  he  questioned  him  in 
relation  to  it ;  and  was  answered  that  he  had  never  been 
further  than  the  country  of  the  Hurons  and  Ottawas.  These 
Indians  inhabited,  the  first  south,  and  the  last  nortli,  of  the 
Straits  of  Mackinac.  This  slory  of  the  interview  with  Joliet 
may  or  may  not  be  true  ;  ])ut  there  is  nothing,  leaving  it  out 
of  the  case,  to  induce  even  a  strong  belief  that  Marquette 
and  Joliet  had  been  to  the  great  river ;  and  the  honor  of  its 
discovery  must  be  given  to  Hennepin. 

La  Sale  having  made  his  preparations  to  maintain  the  posi- 
tion he  had  established  at  Lake  Pimitcwi,  as  a  point  d'appui 
for  the  prosecution  of  his  discoveries,  returned  to  that  post, 
and  in  1682  he  descended  to  the  Missisippi,  and  fell  down 
that  stream  to  its  mouth.  And  this  is  the  first  undoubted  dis- 
covery of  the  Lower  Missisippi,  though  the  narratives  before 
mentioned  have  related  that  botli  ]\Iarquette  and  Hennepin 
had  gone  down  the  river  nearly  to  its  mouth.  It  was  in 
March  that  La  Sale  came  to  the  Missisippi  and  prosecuted  his 
discoveiy  to  its  mouth.*  He  took  possession  of  the  country 
of  the  Arkansas  Indians,  and  arriving  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  on  the  9th  of  April,  took  possession  of  the  country  there 
according  to  law — [Ch.,  v.  2,  p.  27(3].  On  the  lltli  he  rcim- 
barked  and  ascended  the  river.  On  this  voyage  he  left  colo- 
nies at  Kaskaskia  and  Kakokia. 

The  country  of  the  lower  Missisippi  is  not  withm  the  scope 
of  this  work,  and  events  relating  to  it  will  be  briefly  noticed 
only  as  they  have  connection  with  the  discoveries  or  settle- 
ments in  the  upper  country.  La  Sale,  after  his  voyage  down 
the  river,  returned  to  France   for  the  purpose  of  making  a 

*  Charlevoix  says  he  embarked  on  the  Missisippi  on  the  2d  of  February, 
and  going  down  the  river,  took  possession  of  the  country  of  the  Arkansas 
on  the  Ith  of  March. 


76  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

voyage  thence  by  sea  to  discover  the  mouth  of  the  Missi- 
sippi ;  and  in  1684  he  sailed  v^ith  a  large  force  destined  for 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  He  was  unsuccessful  in  his  design  of 
finding  the  mouth  of  the  river  ;  but  having  buih  and  fortified 
two  forts  on  the  gulf,  which  he  garrisoned  with  some  of  his 
men,  he  departed  from  the  Bay  of  St.  Louis,  in  the  northwest 
part  of  the  gulf,  to  make  an  overland  expedition  to  his  fort  on 
the  Ilhnois,  and  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  country  and  its 
inhabitants.  After  traveUing  150  leagues  to  the  northeast,  ho 
returned  to  his  fort  in  the  Bay  of  St.  Louis  on  the  17th  of 
October,  1786.  Having  remained  here  two  months,  he  re- 
solved to  make  a  second  attempt  to  pass  over  to  the  Illinois 
River,  and  taking  twenty  men  with  him,  he  departed  a  second 
time  from  Fort  St.  Louis,  resolved  not  to  return  till  he  had 
found  the  Ilhnois.  His  second  departure  from  the  fort  took 
place  on  the  7th  of  January,  1687.  Before  he  had  proceeded 
as  far  as  on  his  first  attempt,  he  was  murdered  with  three 
others  of  his  company,  by  some  of  his  own  men.  His 
brother,  M.  Cavalier,  with  father  Anastasius,  M.  Joutcl,  and 
others  of  the  party,  made  their  way  to  the  Ilhnois,  and  up 
the  river  to  Crevecoeur,  where  they  found  Mr.  Tonti  and  his 
garrison,  and  were  hospitably  received,  and  after  remaining 
some  days,  proceeded  on  to  Quebec. 

The  next  voyage  in  order  of  time  is  that  of  the  Baron 
Lahontan.  He  started  from  Machinac  on  the  24th  Sept., 
1688,  and  from  the  Bay  of  Puans,  called  by  him  the  Bay  of 
the  Potawatamies,  on  the  30th  of  the  same  month,  with  a 
large  detachment  of  French  and  five  Ottawa  hunters,  pro- 
vided with  new  canoes  filled  with  provisions,  munitions  ot 
war,  and  articles  for  traffic  with  the  natives.  Near  the  Bay, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Fox  River,  at  the  time  of  Lahontan's 
voyage,  were  villages  of  Sakis,  Potawatamies,  and  some 
Malominis,  and  the  Jesuits   had  a  house  tlierc.       A    great 


HISTORY.  77 

trade  was  carried  on  in  peltries  and  Indian  corn,  wliicb  the 
savages  trafficked  "witli  the  covreurs  dii  hois. 

At  this  period,  and  even  prior  to  the  first  enterprise  of  La 
Sale  for  the  discovery  of  the  Missisippi,  there  was  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  tlie  Indians  of  this  region.  It  is  said  in 
1779,  that  more  than  two  hundred  loaded  canoes  pass 
through  the  Straits  St.  Marie  and  Machinac  to  Montreal. 

Lahontan  entered  this  river  on  the  29th  September,  and 
the  warriors  of  each  of  the  three  nations  came  in  turn  to  his 
cabin  to  entertain  him  with  the  dance  of  the  calumet  and  of 
the  captain  :  the  hrst  in  token  of  peace,  and  the  second  in 
compliment  to  the  traveller,  to  signify  their  consideration  and 
regard  for  him.  He  departed  from  this  place  on  the  30tli 
September,  and  passed  up  the  Fox  River,  which  he  called 
the  River  of  Puans.  In  his  passage  up  the  Fox  he  stopped 
at  a  village  of  the  Kickapoos,  and  of  the  Malominies,  to 
whom  he  made  presents,  receiving  in  return  two  or  three 
bags  of  the  meal  of  wild  rice.  He  arrived  on  the  9th  at  a 
fort  of  the  Outagamis,  where  he  was  well  received,  and 
left  on  the  11th.  On  the  13th  he  landed  at  a  place  where 
he  found  the  Chief  of  the  nation.  He  here  received  an  ac- 
cession to  his  company  of  ten  Outagami  warriors.  Tliis 
fort  was  at  half  a  day's  journey  from  the  head  of  Fox  River 
or  Puans,  and  embarking  at  noon  on  the  16th,  he  arrived  on 
the  evening  of  the  same  day  at  the  portage  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin. Tiiey  were  occupied  two  days  in  transporting  their 
canoes  and  baggage  over  tliis  portage.  He  describes  tiie 
Fox  as  salt  and  muddy.  The  country  upon  the  river  seems 
to  have  been  anything  but  agreeable  to  liim.  He  speaks  of 
the  river  as  desolate,  and  says  it  is  bordered  with  steep  hills, 
marshes,  and  frightful  rocks.  On  tlie  19th  of  October  he 
embarked  on  tlie  Wisconsin,  and  in  four  days  he  was  at  the 
Missisippi.     Passing  up  the  Missisippi  he  came  on  the  2d 


78  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

November  to  a  river  which  he  called  Long  River.  On  the 
3d  he  entered  into  the  mouth  of  Long  River,  which  he 
describes  as  forming  a  sort  of  lake  full  of  rushes.  The 
river,  he  remarks,  is  the  stillest  in  the  world.  He  ascended 
the  stream  200  leagues,  which  occupied  him  sixty  days. 
He  lays  down  the  course  of  the  river  from  west  to  east.  It 
is  not  easy  to  conclude,  by  the  account  given  of  this  jour- 
ney, upon  w^hat  river  Lahontan  travelled  this  great  distance 
upon  the  course  he  describes.  The  course  of  St.  Peter's  is 
at  this  day  very  different,  being  first  for  a  large  distance  from 
its  source  from  northwest  to  southeast  nearly,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  its  course  about  south  southwest,  and  north 
northeast.  If  he  ascended  St.  Peter's  to  its  source,  he 
might  easily  have  passed  to  the  waters  of  Red  River,  which 
now  at  times  mingle  w^ith  those  of  the  former.  Mr.  Nicollet 
supposes  that  Cannon  River  answers  to  the  Long  River  of 
this  traveller.  The  station  of  the  traveller,  the  large  num- 
ber of  his  company,  the  incidents  which  he  relates,  and  the 
particularity  of  his  description,  forbid  the  idea  that  his  naiTa- 
tive  is  purely  fabulous.  But  there  is  not,  at  this  day,  any 
stream  in  that  region  upon  which  he  could  have  ascended  so 
far.  If  he  had  gone  upon  the  waters  of  the  Red  River  he 
could  not  have  failed  to  perceive  that  he  was  going  down 
and  not  ascending  the  stream.  The  Cannon  River  is  a  short 
stream,  upon  which  he  could  navigate  scarcely  one  sixth 
of  the  distance  named.  We  must  suppose  that  since  that 
time,  a  considerable  change  has  taken  place  in  the  waters  of 
that  country.  It  may  be,  that  Cannon  River  communicated 
with  St.  Peter's,  or  with  otlier  waters,  and  that  beyond,  to 
the  west,  some  communication  existed  with  the  Missouri. 

This  supposition  is  not  unsupported.  The  early  travellers 
to  this  part  of  the  country  received  accounts  from  the  Indians 
of  a  vast  lake  that  existed,  as  they  said,  far  to  the  northwest, 


HISTORY.  79 

which  they  represented  as  larger  than  Superior.  Charlevoix 
speaks  of  this  lake,  as  well  as  other  writers  of  that  time. 
*'  The  country  of  the  Assinipoils,"  he  says,  "  is  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  a  lake  which  bears  their  name,  with  which  we 
are  but  little  acquainted.  A  Frenchman,  whom  I  saw  at 
Montreal,  assured  me  he  had  been  there,  but  had  seen  it  only 
in  a  transient  manner,  as  one  sees  the  sea  in  a  harbor.  It  is 
the  common  opinion  that  this  lake  is  600  leagues  in  circum- 
ference ;  that  its  l)unks  arc.  delightful  ;  tliat  the  cUmatc  is 
very  temperate,  though  it  lies  to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior, and  it  contains  so  great  a  number  of  islands,  that  it  is 
called  in  that  country  the  Lake  of  Islands.  Some  Indians 
call  it  Mitchinipi  (Great  Water) ;  and  it  seems,  in  effect,  to  be 
the  reservoir  or  source  of  the  greatest  rivers  and  all  the  great 
lakes  of  North  America.  All  the  following  rivers  are  said  to 
liave  their  rise  from  it  :  the  Bourbon,  which  runs  into 
Hudson's  Bay  (Red  River)  ;  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  car- 
ries its  waters  to  the  ocean  ;  the  Missisippi,  which  falls  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  the  Missouri,  which  mixes  with  the 
last ;  and  a  fifth,  which  they  say  runs  westward,  and  conse- 
quently discharges  its  waters  into  the  South  Sea.  I  do  not, 
however,  warrant  all  these  facts,  which  are  supported  only 
by  the  accounts  of  travellers  ;  and,  much  less,  what  the 
Indians  have  related,  that  in  tiic  neighborhood  of  the  lake  arc 
men  resembling  the  Europeans,  who  are  settled  in  a  country 
where  gold  and  silver  are  so  common  that  they  arc  employed 
in  the  meanest  uses." 

The  face  of  the  country,  and  the  peculiar  physical  charac- 
teristic which  it  at  present  has,  being  diversified  witii  a  clus- 
ter of  numerous  lakes,  which,  with  the  addition  of  a  body  of 
water  not  very  great,  would  make  a  Lake  of  Islands  as 
extensive  as  that  named,  favor  the  story.  A  branch  of  Red 
River,  rising  in  the  country  of  the  supposed  lake,  now  bears 


"X 


BO  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

the  name  of  Assinaboin,  and  a  tributary  of  the  last,  called 
Mouse  River,  rises  within  a  mile  of  the  Missouri. 

Long    says,    "  although    many    have     supposed    that    the 
waters  of  the  Missisippi  are  separated  from  those  running 
northwestwardly  into  the  Pacific,  and  northeastw^ardly  into 
the  Atlantic,  by  a  mountainous  range  of  country ;  yet,  from 
the  best  infomiation  that  can  be  had  on  the  subject,  the  fact 
is  quite  otherwise.     The  old  and  almost  fortrotten  statement, 
of  savage  origin,  that  four  of  the  largest  rivers  of  the  conti- 
nent have  their  sources  in  the  same  plain,  is  entitled  to  far 
more  credit.     The  rivers  alluded  to,  are  the  Missisippi,  St. 
Lav\Tence,  Suskatckav^-an,  and  Oregon.*     Agreeably  to  the 
accounts  of  Col.  Dixon,  and  others,  wdio  have  traversed  the 
country  situated  between   the   Missouri   and   Assiniboin,  a 
branch  of  the   Red  River  of  Hudson's   Bay,  no   elevated 
ridge  is  to  be  met  with ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  tributaries  to 
both  these  streams  take  their  rise  in  the  same  champaign. 
The  water  courses  are  represented  as   chains  of  lakes  of 
various  magnitudes,  while  lakes  and  stagnant  pools  are  scat- 
tered in  every  direction,  without  ridges  or  perceptible  declivi- 
ties, to  show  the  direction  in  which  they  are  di'ained." — V, 
ii.,  p.  380. 

The  tract  included  between  the  Missisippi,  Crow  Wing, 
Red  River,  and  the  ridge  spreading  over  the  sources  of  the 
Missisippi,  forming  nearly  a  parallelogi-am  of  100  by  150 
miles,  lying  northeast  and  southwest,  is  mostly,  at  this  day, 
a  collection  of  lakes  and  water.  There  is  very  clear  evi- 
dence, from  geological  indications,  that  the  whole  Upper 
Missisippi  w^as,  at  one  time,  submerged  ;  and  it  is  highly  pro- 
bable that,  in  the  gradual  subsidence  of  the  waters,  which 

*  Colonel  Long  is  probably  mistaken  in  naming  the  Oregon  as  one  of 
the  four  alluded  to.     Charlevoix  is  probably  more  correct  in  naming  the 


rivers. 


HISTORY.  81 

may  not  have  taken  place  in  1690  or  1700  to  the  extent  it 
has  now  attained,  a  great  lake  may  have  covered  all  that 
area, — or,  at  least,  that  the  physical  geography  of  the  country 
at  that  time  may  have  presented  some  difference  in  the  quan- 
tity and  disposition  of  its  hydrographical  outline.  In  the  pre- 
sent century,  the  Missouri  has  so  changed  its  course  that 
Nicollet  was  unable  to  find  some  of  the  bends  described  by 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  thirty  years  before. 

The  supposition  of  Nicollet,  that  he  passed  through  Can- 
non River,  is  not  improbable.  The  sources  of  Cannon 
River  are  within  four  or  five  miles  of  an  eastern  branch  of 
Blue  Earth  River,  and  the  intervening  ground  is  a  perfect 
level.  The  communication  may,  at  the  time  of  the  voyage, 
liave  been  complete,  or  been  made  so  by  a  freshet,  and  he 
Avould  thus  have  passed  through  the  Blue  Earth  into  St. 
Peter's.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  St.  Peter's  itself  once 
pursued  this  course,  more  in  unison  with  the  course  of  the 
river  higher  up,  and  disembogued  where  the  mouth  of  Can- 
non River  now  is.  At  this  day  the  St.  Peter's,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Blue  Earth,  makes  a  bend  at  right  angles  with  its 
former  course,  as  stated  above.  It  is  well  known  that  at 
high  stages  of  water,  boats  may  now  pass  into  Rock  River 
through  the  Marais  D'Osiers,  thirty  miles  above  the  mouth 
of  Rock  River. 

Lahontan's  descriptions  are  too  particular,  and  his  narra- 
tive too  circumstantial  and  too  probable,  to  one  acquainted 
with  the  northwest,  to  be  discredited,  merely  on  accoiuit  of  a 
supposed  impossibility  of  performing  the  voyage,  because  of 
the  physical  unfitness  of  the  country  at  this  day.  His  work 
was,  it  is  true,  decried  in  its  time  by  the  Jesuits,  but  this 
was  for  the  reason  that  he  had  spoken  lightly  of  them  ;  and, 
because,  from  ignorance  of  the  country  and  the  people,  state- 
ments which  are  now  known  to  be  correct,  would  then  have 

6* 


82  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

been  deemed  improbable,  and  received  with  distrust.  After 
navigating  the  St.  Peter's,  Lahontan  went  down  the  Missi- 
sippi,  taking  notice  of  the  Des  Moines  River,  which  he 
called  Otenta  ;  the  same  name  by  which  Hennepin  had 
designated  a  river  falling  into  the  Missisippi  from  the  w^est ; 
visited  a  village  of  Otenta  people,  probably  Illinois,  and 
passed  down  to  the  Missouri,  up  which  he  sailed  some  dis- 
tance, meeting  some  Arkansas  and  a  band  of  unknown  In- 
dians, and  proceeded  dow^n  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio, 
called  by  him,  Ouabach  (Wabash) ;  and  then,  ascending  the 
Missisippi,  passed  up  through  the  Illinois,  on  w^hich,  at  Fort 
Crevecoeur,  he  met  with  Sieur  Tonti,  w^ho,  it  appears,  w^as 
yet  remaining  where  he  had  been  left  nine  years  before  by 
La  Sale. 

Lahontan  was  probably  the  fost  European  who  had  as- 
cended the  Missouri,  as  well  as  the  St.  Peter's,  and  must  be 
considered  the  discoverer  of  both  these  noble  rivers. 

The  river  now  called  Des  Moines,  was  laid  down  in  the 
map  accompanying  Lahontan,  and  mentioned  by  him,  and 
also  by  Hennepin,  under  the  name  of  Otenta.  In  Charle- 
voix, and  in  the  Histoirc  Generale  des  Voyages,  published  in 
1757,  it  is  called  Moingona. 

A  person  who  has  seen  this  country,  knows  that  it  has 
undergone  great  changes  at  more  than  one  epoch.  It  bears 
evidence  that  at  one  time  the  w^hole  surface  of  the  Missisippi 
valley  has  been  submerged ;  and  w^e  make  a  short  digression 
in  this  place,  to  state  more  fully  our  opinion  on  this  matter. 
There  is  no  doubt  that,  at  some  remote  period,  by  the  con- 
vulsion of  an  eartliquake,  the  land  of  this  valley  has  been 
upheaved,  and  has  thrown  off  the  water  that  covered  it, 
which  may  have  extended  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
Hudson's  Bay,  separating  our  hemisphere  into  two  conti- 
nents.      Such   was   my    own   decided    opinion,    frequently 


HISTORY.  83 

expressed,  at  the  first  sight  of  this  region ;  and  I  have  found 
since  that  others  have  had  tlic  same  opinion.  There  has 
been  a  second  change  subsequently,  in  which  the  streams 
that  drained  off  the  waters  of  this  country  liave  been  confined 
within  narrowed  beds.  Upon  all  the  streams  of  this  coun- 
try, the  banks  at  present  confining  their  waters  are  low 
bottom  lands,  the  alluvion  of  the  streams,  generally  from  six 
to  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  the  principal  rivers  above  the 
common  stage  of  water.  Behind  these  are  bluffs  forming  a 
wider  bed,  in  which  it  is  probable  the  stream  once  flowed. 
My  conjecture  is,  that  at  some  upheaving  of  the  earth  by  an 
earthquake,  since  the  epoch  of  the  denudation,  another  part 
of  the  lakes  and  waters,  that  had  been  left  after  the  first,  has 
been  thrown  off,  and  thus  the  streams,  which  convey  off 
these  waters,  have  been  diminished  and  their  beds  narrowed. 
In  1G63  Canada  was  visited  by  a  very  violent  eartliquakc, 
which  probably  extended  to  this  country.  It  is  known  to 
have  extended  west  to  the  region  of  Lake  Michigan.  To 
Europeans  the  Missisippi  country  was  then  unknown.  My 
conjecture  is,  that  this  earthquake  not  only  was  felt  at  that 
period  on  the  Missisippi,  but  that  it  may  have  been  repeated 
also,  or  rather  continued,  and  that,  by  a  gradual  upheaving, 
the  consequence  of  these  earthquakes,  a  change  may  have 
been  effected  in  the  hydrographic  condition  of  this  country 
since  it  was  seen  by  Lahontan,  and  that  rivers  may  have 
extended  then  farther  than  their  channels  now  run,  and  some 
of  the  ground  then  forming  their  beds  has  become  dry. 
Though  there  is  no  authority  for  staling  that  this  earth- 
quake actually  rent  the  earth  of  the  Missisippi  valley,  yet, 
as  it  is  known  to  have  been  felt  in  a  neighboring  region,  and 
probably  was  here  also,  the  relation  is  here  given  as  con- 
nected in  its  effects,  though  not  in  lime,  with  this  portion 
of  our  story.     The  story  is,  in  the  main,  true,  though  the 


84  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

lights  ill  the  air  and  the  lowing  of  the  sea-cows  may  have 
been  painted  by  the  alarmed  imagination  of  the  witnesses. 

In  1663  Canada  was  visited  with  a  great  earthquake,  whicli 
extended  nine  hundred  miles  east  and  west,  and  perhaps  fur- 
ther.    The  following  account  is  given  by  Charlevoix  : — 

"  Trees  were  thrown  into  the  air  with  as  much  force  as  if 
a  mine  had  been  exploded  under  their  roots,  and  some  were 
found  fixed  in  the  earth  by  their  tops.  A  person  could  not 
feel  more  secure  upon  the  water  than  upon  the  land.  The 
ice  which  covered  the  River  St.  Lawrence  and  the  streams, 
was  broken  and  thrown  together  ;  large  blocks  of  ice  were 
thrown  into  the  air,  and  the  places  which  they  had  left  threw 
up  a  large  quantity  of  sand  and  mud.  Many  fountauis  and 
small  streams  were  dried  up  ;  in  others,  the  waters  were 
impregnated  with  sulphur  ;  and  there  were  some  whose  beds 
even,  in  which  they  had  flowed,  could  not  be  distinguished. 

"  Here  the  waters  became  red,  there  they  turned  yellow  ; 
those  of  the  river  were  all  white,  from  Quebec  to  Tadoussac, 
a  space  of  thirty  leagues.  The  air  had,  also,  its  phenomena. 
A  constant  thundering  was  heard  in  it ;  they  saw,  or  ima- 
gined they  saw,  in  it  spectres  of  fire,  bearing  torches  in  their 
hands.  Flames  appeared  in  it  which  took  all  sorts  of  figures 
— some  of  pikes,  some  of  lances  ;  and  burning  brands  fell  on 
the  roofs  without  setting  them  on  fire.  From  time  to  time 
meanings  increased  the  terror.  Sea-cows  were  heard  lowing 
on  the  Three  Rivers,  where  never  before  these  fish  had 
appeared ;  and  their  lowings  had  nothing  like  that  of  any 
creature  known.  In  a  word,  in  the  whole  extent  of  three  hun- 
dred leagues  from  cast  to  west,  and  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  from  south  to  north,  the  land,  the  rivers,  and  the 
shores  of  the  sea,  were,  for  a  long  time,  by  intervals,  in  such 
an  agitation  as  the  Prophet  King  represents  when  he  relates 
the  wonders  which  accompanied  the  departure  from  Egypt 
of  the  people  of  God.     The  effects  of  this  earthquake  were 


HISTORY.  85 

infinitely  varied ;  and  never,  perhaps,  was  there  more  cause 
to  think  that  nature  was  to  be  destroyed,  and  the  world 
coming  to  an  end. 

**  The  first  shock  lasted  half  an  hour,  without  cessation  ; 
but,  at  the  end  of  a  quarter  of  an  liour,  it  began  to  be  less 
violent.  The  same  day,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
there  was  a  second  shock,  as  violent  as  the  first ;  and,  in  the 
space  of  a  half-hour,  there  were  two  others.  Some  persons 
counted  thirty-two  in  the  following  night,  some  of  which  were 
very  strong.     •     •     •     • 

**  Half  way  from  Tadoussac  to  Quebec  two  mountains  were 
levelled,  and  of  the  earth  which  was  thrown  down  by  them,  a 
point  was  formed,  which  was  advanced  a  half-quarter  of  a 
league  into  the  river." 

These  several  voyages  of  Hennepin,  La  Sale,  and  La- 
hontan,  had  made  the  world  acquainted  with  the  noble  Missi- 
sippi  from  St.  Ajithony's  to  the  Gulf,  and  with  the  St.  Peter's, 
and  Missouri,  and  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois,  and  with  a  vast 
extent  of  territory,  containing  the  richest  soil  upon  the  earth, 
and  some  of  the  richest  deposits  of  metals  within  it. 

The  dominion  of  the  French  in  America  had  been  extend- 
ed by  the  discovery  and  acquisition  of  all  that  territory  lying 
west  of  the  Lake  Michigan  to  the  River  Missisippi,  and  of 
the  much  greater  and  more  magnificent  region  comprehended 
under  the  name  of  Louisiana  :  embracing  all  that  country 
which  it  is  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  describe.  La- 
hontan,  it  should  be  named,  took  formal  possession  of  the 
country  of  St.  Peter's,  by  setting  up  landmarks  of  his  travel; 
and  Louisiana  included  the  Missouri  River,  of  which  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  French  gained  any  jurisdiction  by  his 
visit  beyond  what  might  be  claimed  by  the  right  of  discovery 
merely. 

The  earliest  visitors  to  Lake  Superior  had  become  ac- 


"\ 


86  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

quainted  with  its  rich  deposits  of  copper  ore.  More  than  one 
of  the  pubhshed  descriptions  mention  it,  and  it  is  stated  by 
Charlevoix  that  such  was  the  purity  of  the  ore  that  one  of  the 
monks  who  was  there,  and  who  had  been  bred  to  the  business 
of  a  goldsmith,  made  from  it  some  sacramental  articles 

"  The  savages,"  says  Charlevoix,  "  on  account  of  the  quan- 
tity of  fish  furnished  by  Lake  Superior,  and  of  the  respect 
inspired  by  its  vast  extent,  have  made  it  a  sort  of  divinity, 
and  offer  to  it  sacrifices  in  their  manner."  He  thinks,  never- 
theless, it  is  rather  to  the  genius  of  the  lake  than  to  the  lake 
itself  that  they  address  their  prayers.  "  If  one  may  believe 
them,"  says  he,  "  the  origin  of  the  lake  has  something  divine 
in  it.  It  was  formed,  they  imagine,  by  Michabou,  the  god 
of  waters,  in  order  to  supply  them  with  beaver.  In  the  strait 
by  which  it  is  discharged  into  Huron,  there  is  a  rapid,  caus- 
ed," he  says,  "by  great  rocks,  called  Sault  St.  Marie.  These 
rocks,  according  to  the  Indians,  are  the  remains  of  a  cause- 
way which  God  had  built  to  hold  the  waters  of  the  river  and 
those  of  Lake  Alimepegon,  which  filled  this  great  lake." 

"  In  places  on  its  borders,  and  about  some  of  its  islands," 
says  the  writer  above-named,  "we  found  large  pieces  of 
copper,  which  are  yet  the  object  of  the  superstitious  adoration 
of  the  savages.  They  regard  them  with  veneration  as  a 
present  from  the  gods  who  inhabit  the  waters.  They  collect 
the  smallest  fragments  of  it,  and  preserve  them  with  care,  but 
make  no  use  of  them.  They  say  that  formerly  they  have 
seen  a  large  rock,  all  of  the  same  mineral,  raised  much  above 
the  water  ;  and,  as  it  is  not  now  to  be  seen,  they  say  that  the 
gods  have  removed  it  somewhere  else.  But  there  is  reason 
to  suppose  that  in  the  lapse  of  time  the  waves  of  the  lake 
have  covered  it  with  sand  and  ooze  :  and  it  is  certain  that  we 
discovered  in  many  places  a  large  quantity  of  this  metal 
without  even  being  obliged  to  dig  much.    On  my  first  voyage 


/ 


HISTORY.  87 

to  this  country  I  knew  a  brother  of  our  order  who  was  a  gold- 
smith by  trade,  who,  while  on  his  mission  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
had  gone  in  search  of  it,  and  had  made  chandeliers,  crosses, 
and  censors  of  it  ;  for  the  copper  is  often  almost  wholly 
pure." 

The  savages  supposed  that  when  Michebou  formed  Lake 
Superior,  he  dwelt  at  Missi-Mackinac,*  where  he  was  bom. 
This  name  is  properly  that  of  a  small  island,  nearly  round  and 
very  high,  situated  at  the  extremity  of  Lake  Huron,  and  it 
has  become  extended  by  custom  to  all  the  country  about. 
The  island  may  be  three  or  four  miles  in  circuit,  and  may  be 
seen  at  twelve  miles  distance.     There  are  two  other  islands 
at  the  south,  the  most  distant  of  which  is  five  or  six  leagues 
long,  the  other  is  very  small,  and  perfectly  round.     Both  are 
well  wooded,  and  the  soil  is  very  good,  wliile  that  of  Missi- 
mackinac  is  but  a  sterile  rock,  and  scantily  covered  with  a 
little  moss  and  grass.     It  is,  however,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated spots  in  Canada  ;  and  it  was  a  long  time,  according  to 
some  old  Lidian  traditions,  the  head-quarters   of  a  nation 
which  bears  the  same  name,  and  which  counted,  they  say, 
thirty  bands,  scattered  over  the  neighboring  country.     It  is 
said  that  the  Iroquois  destroyed  them,  but  it  is  not  said  at 
what  time,  or  on  what  occasion.     It  is  certain  that  no  vestige 
of  them  remains  :  but  I  have  read  somewhere  that  our  early 
missionaries  have  seen  some  remnants  of  them. 

This  is  the  account  given  by  Charlevoix,  and  he  adds  that 
the  name  signifies  much  turtle. 

•  This  name  means  much  turtle,  and  the  first  part  is  the  same  as  the 
first  part  of  Missi-sippi,  i.e.,  much  water,  or  great  river.  The  French 
travellers  called  it  Michasippi,  and  Michilimackinac.  Perhaps  also  the 
word  Michebou  is  corrupted  in  the  same  way.  Miche  is  probably  Missi, 
great,  and  the  whole  word,  Great  Spirit.  The  name  of  the  Great  Lake 
also  before  spoken  of  is  given  Michinippi.  It  should  be  Missi— the  same 
word  again 


88  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Mr.  D.  Iberville,  who  had  the  commission  of  the  French 
king  for  that  purpose,  found  the  mouth  of  the  Missisippi  in 
March,  1700,  and  ascended  the  stream  some  distance.  He 
deputed  his  father,  Mr.  Le  Sueur,  with  tw^enty  men,  to  make 
an  establishment  in  the  country  of  the  Sioux,  and  to  take 
possession  of  a  mine  of  copper  on  the  Green  River  (now 
called  Blue  Earth),  which  puts  into  St.  Peter's  on  the  left, 
at  40  leagues  above  the  mouth.  Le  Sueur  could  not  ascend 
the  Green  River  on  account  of  the  ice,  though  it  was  in 
September,  and  was  obliged  to  build  a  fort,  and  winter  there. 
As  soon  as  the  season  would  permit,  in  April,  he  visited  the 
mine,  and  in  twenty-two  days  drew  from  it  more  than  thirty 
thousand  pounds  weight  of  the  mineral.  He  selected  four 
thousand  of  that  which  appeared  best,  and  carried  it  with 
him  to  France. — {Cha?'!.,  v.  4,  p.  165,  et  seq.) 

Mr.  Nicollet,  who  explored  that  country  in  1838,  could  not 
find  the  place  referred  to,  though  its  situation  is  very  exactly 
pointed  out  by  Charlevoix. 

In  1710,  the  king  granted  to  Mr.  Crozat  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  trading  in  Louisiana  for  sixteen  years,  and  the 
property  in  himself  and  his  heirs  for  ever,  of  the  mines,  ores 
and  minerals,  that  might  be  discovered  and  worked.  In 
1717,  Crozat  surrendered  the  grant  to  the  king,  and  he  trans- 
ferred it  to  the  western  company,  w^hich  at  this  time  w^as 
formed  by  Mr.  Law.  Under  the  auspices  of  this  compan}^ 
a  German  colony  was  settled  a  few  miles  above  New  Or- 
leans. The  company  held  it  until  1731,  when  it  was  retro- 
ceded  to  the  king.  The  grant  included  the  country  of  the 
Illinois,  which  was  rather  indefinite,  but  probably  was  intend- 
ed to  include  all  the  country  in  tlie  Missisippi  Valley  that 
had  been  visited  by  the  French,  wliich  would  extend  north 
to  the  territory  of  the  English  settlements  in  Hudson's  Bay, 
and  west  as  far  as  the  country  was  then  known. 


HISTORY.  89 

I 

This  country,  wliosc  discovery  and  occupation  has  been 
chronicled  in  tlie  foregoing  very  concise  epitome,  comprises 
about  three-fourths  of  a  milHon  of  square  miles  in  extent, 
mostly  of  a  soil  that  has  not  its  equal  on  the  earth,  and 
covers  nearly  in  latitude  the  whole  of  the  northern  temperate 
zone.  Its  features  are  peculiar.  Most  conveniently  and 
beautifully  distributed  in  grove  and  prairie,  the  settler  finds 
the  labor  of  subduing  it  but  the  sport  of  a  season ;  fertile  as 
the  chemistry  of  nature  can  produce,  the  husbandman  almost 
forgets  he  is  subject  to  the  law  laid  upon  his  first  parent,  and 
is  scarcely  conscious  that  in  the  sweat  of  his  brow  he  earns 
his  bread.  It  is  not  more  beautiful  to  the  sense,  than  grate- 
ful to  the  toil,  of  man. 

In  the  enterprises,  humble  in  means  and  in  the  mode  of 
prosecuting  them,  silent,  luiapplauded,  hazardous  and  toil- 
some, great  in  their  results,  a  few  brave  and  polite  French- 
men, accompanied  by  two  or  three  pious,  peaceful  and 
zealous  disciples  of  the  cross,  surmounted  with  comparative 
ease  and  impunity,  obstacles  which,  to  explorers  of  different 
material,  would  have  presented  pictures  of  blood  and  death. 
The  acquisition  of  this  invaluable  country  was  made  by 
them  almost  without  disaster,  which,  if  attempted  by  others, 
would  probably  have  made  our  peaceful  story  a  series  of 
most  moving  tragedies.  The  Frenchman  forgets  not  that 
the  uncivilized,  as  well  as  civilized  man,  is  his  brother,  and 
he  deports  himself  as  man  to  man.  The  sturdy  Saxon  treats 
the  Indian  like  a  dog.  The  Frenchman  adapts  liimself  to  all 
situations,  and  to  all  people.  The  American  thinks  every- 
thing is  to  be  accommodated  to  him.  But  the  churchmen 
were  also  greatly  useful  in  inspiring  the  savages  with  peace- 
ful emotions,  by  their  religious  emblems,  services,  devotions 
and  instructions.  By  these  means,  and  by  such  deportment, 
aided  by  a  few  presents  judiciously  bestowed,  and  with  such 


90  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

influence  superadded,  as  the  possession  of  tlieir  formidable 
fire  arms,  mostly  unknown  to  the  natives,  gave  them,  they 
were  enabled  to  conciliate  the  untamed  children  of  the  forest 
and  prairie,  and  to  avoid  many  encounters  which  a  more  rude 
and  inconsiderate  treatment  of  the  savages  would  doubtless 
have  provoked. 

In  1720,  a  colony  of  Germans  made  a  settlement  on  the 
banks  of  the  river,  a  few  miles  above  New  Orleans.  They 
were  quite  numerous,  amounting  to  1500.  In  1723,  some 
Capuchin,  and,  in  two  years  after,  some  Jesuit  missionaries, 
settled  in  the  country.  For  nearly  a  century  following  this 
time,  the  country  was  peopled  with  very  few  inhabitants, 
and  the  events  that  occurred  were  few ;  and  saving  the  trea- 
ties by  which  the  political  relations  of  the  countr}^  were 
changed,  and  the  dominion  successively  transferred  from 
France  to  Spain  and  England,  and  after^vards  to  the  United 
States,  are  of  little  interest.  In  this  period,  however,  that 
is,  in  fifty  years  succeeding  the  building  of  Fort  Crevecceur, 
and  the  first  establishment  of  the  French  in  that  quarter, 
several  settlements  were  made  on  the  American  bottom,  a 
few  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois.  These  were  at 
Kaskaskia,  Kahokia,  and  Prairie  du  Rocher,  a  few  miles 
north  of  the  others.  A  settlement  was  also  made  at  Vincen- 
nes,  on  the  Wabash,  originally  called  St.  Vincent's  ;  and 
several  points  on  the  Missisippi  were  visited  by  them,  as  the 
river  Des  Moines,  Prairie  du  Chien,  Prairie  Pomme  de 
Terre,  Marais  d'Osier  (Willow  Swamp),  now  corrupted  into 
Meredosia  Swamp,  and  other  places. 

In  1729  there  was  a  conspiracy  of  the  Natches  Indians 
against  the  French  residing  at  Fort  Natches,  which,  by  the 
incredulity,  blindness  and  obstinacy  of  the  commander,  Che- 
par,  who  had  full  notice  of  the  conspiracy,  which  his  rapacity 
and  misrule  had  caused,  resulted  in  the  massacre  of  2000 


HISTORY.  91 

settlers,  with  circumstances  of  the  most  revolting  barbarity, 
and  the  captivity  of  a  great  number  more.  In  1752  one  of 
those  hostile  irruptions,  so  common  among  the  savages  of 
this  continent,  took  place  between  the  Outagamis  and  Mitchi- 
gamis,  whicli  is  thus  related  by  Bossu,  a  French  traveller, 
who  was  in  the  country  at  the  time  : — 

"In  1752,  the  Kahokias  met  six  Outagamis  hunting. 
They  took  tliem  prisoners,  and  burned  them.  One  of  the 
Outagamis  escaped,  liowever,  from  the  stake,  and  having 
returned  to  his  nation,  related  to  them  what  had  been  done 
to  his  companions.  The  chief  of  the  nation  called  an  assem- 
bly, in  which  it  was  resolved  to  send  bundles  of  rods  to  mark 
the  number  of  warriors  and  the  day  of  departure  to  their 
aUies,  the  Sioux,  Sakis  and  Kikapoos,  who  went  with  the 
Outagamis  to  the  number  of  1000,  to  revenge  the  death  of 
their  brotliers  who  had  been  burned  by  the  Kahokias.  They 
embarked  in  180  canoes  on  the  river  Wisconsin,  and  de- 
scending that  stream  and  the  Missisippi,  landed  near  a  vil- 
lage of  the  Michigamis  or  Missigamis,  below  the  Fort  of 
Kaliokia,  with  wliich  tribe  it  appears  the  Kahokias,  who  had 
burned  their  countrymen,  were  domesticated.  The  com- 
mander of  tlie  allied  invaders  ordered  ten  or  twelve  of  the 
best  runners  to  throw  themselves  into  the  village,  whicli  was 
innnediately  done.  They  fell  upon  the  enemy's  village,  and 
killed  all  they  met,  sounding  the  death  dry,  and  having  dis- 
charged their  arms  fled  with  great  speed.  The  Missigamis 
pursued.  The  Outagamis  and  their  allies  lying  concealed  in 
the  tall  grass,  discharged  their  arrows  at  the  approaching  foe, 
by  which  twenty-eight  were  killed,  and  immediately  fell  upon 
the  village,  and  killed  men,  women,  and  children,  set  fire  to 
the  village,  and  led  away  captives  those  who  were  not  slaugh- 
tered. This  battle  took  place  on  the  Gth  of  June,  1752. 
The  Outagamis  lost  four  men  :  the  Missigamis,  in  killed  and 


92  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

prisoners,  about  eighty.  The  alhes,  content  with  their  re- 
venge, re-embarked  Avith  their  prisoners,  and  returned  to  their 
own  countr3^ — Bossu,  i.,  p.  129,  et  seq. 

In  1762,  France,  by  a  secret  treaty,  ceded  Louisiana  to 
Spain,  to  prevent  it  from  falHng  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng- 
lish, with  Canada,  which  it  now  became  manifest  must 
become  the  property  of  the  latter  nation  by  conquest,  and 
w^hich  was  actually  given  up  to  the  English  in  the  following 
year  (1763),  by  the  treaty  of  Paris.  Tw^enty  years  after- 
ward, by  the  treaty  of  peace  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  that  part  of  Canada  lying  south  and  w^est  of  the  great 
lakes,  and  comprehending  a  large  territory  wdiich  is  the  sub- 
ject of  these  sketches,  w^as  acknowledged  to  be  a  portion 
of  the  United  States  ;  and  twenty  years  still  later  (in  1803), 
.Louisiana  was  ceded  by  Spain  back  to  France,  and  by  France 
sold  to  the  United  States. 

Li  1763,  Mr.  Laclede,  w^ho,  in  the  preceding  year,  had 
received  a  charter  to  trade  wdth  the  Indians,  from  the  French 
governor  at  New  Orleans,  ascended  the  river,  leaving  New^ 
Orleans  in  August,  and,  on  the  third  of  November,  arrived  at 
St.  Genevieve  ;  and,  in  the  following  spring,  with  thirty 
others,  on  account  of  insufficient  accommodation  at  St.  Gene- 
vieve, passed  over  the  river  to  Fort  Chartres,  a  post  esta- 
blished by  the  French  ni  1732. 

In  the  half  century  from  the  building  of  the  foi't  of  Creve- 
coeur,  1680,  up  to  the  period  of  that  of  Fort  Chartres,  many 
French  settlements  had  been  made  in  that  quarter.  The 
principal  were  St.  Vincent's,  on  the  Wabash,  and  Kaskaskia, 
Kahokia,  and  Prairie  du  Rocher,  on  the  American  Bottom,  a 
large  tract  of  river  alluvion  in  Illinois,  on  the  Missisippi, 
opposite  to  St.  Louis.  But  here,  being  informed  that  all  the 
Illmois  had  been  given  up  to  Great  Britain,  they  crossed  the 
river,  and  established  themselves  at  St.  Louis,  on  the  right 


HISTORY.  93 

bank.  Many  of  the  French  in  the  settlement  just  named 
followed  them,  others  went  to  New  Orleans,  and  those  places 
became  nearly  abandoned. — Nic,  pp.  75,  77. 

Some  of  these  people,  however,  especially  those  from 
Fort  Chartres  and  Prairie  du  Rocher,  who  went  to  New 
Orleans,  finding  Louisiana  transferred  to  Spain,  returned  to 
Illinois. — lb.,  79. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  occurrences  belonging  to  the 
history  of  the  Upper  Missi8i})pi  happened  at  this  period, 
in  consequence  of  the  change  of  dominion  over  the  Illinois 
country.  The  Indians,  having  become  attached  to  the 
French,  refused  to  acknowledge  the  sway  of  the  power  to 
whom  the  latter  had  surrendered  the  country.  This  event 
is  thus  related  by  Nicollet : — 

"  In  the  meanwhile,  the  second  year  after  the  treaty  of 
peace  had  elapsed,  and  the  British  had  not  yet  been  able  to 
take  possession  of  Illinois.  This  was  owing  to  the  opposi- 
tion made  by  several  Indian  tribes,  who,  as  alluded  to  above, 
had  refused  to  abide  by  the  treaty,  and  were  waging  a  most 
cruel  war  against  the  British.  These  tribes  had  formed  a 
confederacy,  under  the  command  of  Pontiac,  a  bold  warrior, 
who  had  already  become  celebrated  for  his  prowess,  and  his 
devoted  attacliment  to  France  during  the  whole  of  the  war 
which  the  latter  had  carried  on  against  Great  Britain  in 
America.  The  confederated  Indian  army  was  composed  of 
Hurons,  Miamis,  Chippeways,  Ottawas,  Pottawatomies, 
Missourias,  &c.  The  name  of  Pontiac  was  the  terror  of  the 
whole  region  of  the  lakes  ;  and,  by  his  bands,  he  effectually 
interrupted  the  British  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  nations 
that  had  remained  friendly  to  that  government.  The  taking 
of  Fort  Michilimackinac,  the  attempt  at  Detroit,  and  the 
attack  upon  the  schooner  Gladwin,  on  Lake  Michigan,  are 


94  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

memorable  events,  evincing  a  spirit  of  cunning  and  daring 
highly  characteristic  of  the.  genius  of  the  red  man. 

"  In  the  winter  of  1764-65,  Pontiac,  whilst  engaged  in  his 
acts  of  depredation,  learned  that  an  armed  British  force  was 
about  to  start  from  New  Orleans,  to  take  possession  of  the 
left  bank  of  the  Missisippi.  He  immediately  proceeded  to 
the  neighborhood  of  Fort  Cliartres,  accompanied  by  four 
hundred  warriors,  to  oppose  this  occupation  of  the  country ; 
and,  finding  there  some  Illinois  Indians  who  had  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  French  garrison,  he 
proposed  to  them  to  join  him.  But  these  people,  disheartened 
by  recent  calamities,  and,  as  it  were,  foredoomed  to  a  final 
extinction,  w^ere  unwilling  to  assume  a  hostile  attitude 
towards  their  new  rulers,  from  whom  interest,  if  not  gene- 
rosity, would  lead  them  to  expect  the  same  protection  which 
they  were  then  receiving.  To  this  refusal,  Pontiac  replied 
with  characteristic  energy  :  '  Hesitate  not,  or  I  will  destroy 
you  with  the  same  rapidity  that  fire  destroys  the  grass  of  the 
prairie.  Listen,  and  recollect  that  these  are  Pontiac's  Avord?.' 
Having  then  despatched  scouts  upon  the  Missisippi  and  the 
Ohio,  he  hastened  with  some  of  his  warriors  to  Fort  Char- 
Ires." — Nic,  p.  80. 

He  here  had  an  interview  w^itli  the  French  commander, 
professed  his  friendship  for  the  French,  and  offered  his  ser- 
vices in  resisting  the  English  in  attempting  to  take  possession 
of  the  country.  His  offers  were  rejected,  of  course  ;  and, 
after  a  short  time,  he  returned  to  the  north,  made  peace  with 
the  British,  and  received  a  pension  from  them. — Ih.,  p.  81. 

Pontiac  afterward  resided  at  St.  Louis  ;  and,  on  a  visit 
to  the  Kaskaskia  Indians,  was  make  drunk,  and,  while  in  that 
state,  was  murdered  by  a  Kaskaskia  Indian,  hired,  it  is  said, 
by  an  Englishman,  named  Williamson.  This  murder  roused 
the  vengeance  of  his  friends,  and  brought  on  wars  whicli 


•  HISTORY.  95 

resulted  in  tlic  almost  total  extinction  of  the  Illinois  nations, 
—Nic,  81,  82. 

Pontiac  was  a  remarkably  good-looking  man  ;  nice  in 
his  person,  and  distinguished  by  taste  in  liis  dress.  His 
complexion  was  very  light,  approaching  that  of  the  whites. 
His  origin  is  uncertain.  Some  suppose  him  to  have  been  an 
Ottawa,  others  a  Miami  ;  but,  on  the  best  authority,  he  is 
stated  to  have  been  a  Nipissing. — 76.,  p.  82. 

The  rapid  extermination  of  the  Illinois  nations  of  Indians 
affords  a  vivid  illustration  of  the  warlike  tastes,  the  litiirious 
disposition,  and  of  the  habits  of  the  northern  Indians,  as  well 
as  a  sad  moral  lesson  on  the  decay  and  extinction  of  races  and 
nations. 

At  the  time  when  La  Sale  undertook  his  great  project  of 
the  discovery  of  the  Missisippi,  in  1679,  the  Illinois  were  a 
populous  and  powerful  nation.  They  had,  at  that  time,  suf- 
fered greatly  in  the  recent  and  long-continued  warfare  with 
their  eastern  neighbors,  the  Iroquois,  which  had  not  yet 
terminated.  The  accounts  given  at  that  time  represented 
that  one  village  on  the  Illinois  river  contained,  conjecturally, 
ten  thousand.  Charlevoix  mentions  only  four  bands  :  the 
Tamaroas,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  ;  the  Moingonas, 
at  the  Des  Moins  River,  as  now  called  ;  the  Kaskaskias  and 
Kaokias,  upon  and  south  of  the  Illinois  river.  The  Michi- 
gamis  and  Peorias  were,  no  doubt  (certainly  the  first),  of  this 
nation  ;  but  whether  distinct  tribes,  or  divisions  of  one  or  more 
of  the  other  tribes,  may  be  doubtful.  The  desolating  war  of 
the  Iroquois  gave  a  severe  shock  to  the  Illinois,  from  wliicli  they 
never  recovered.  About  seventy  years  after  this  period,  the 
combined  forces  of  the  Sauks,  Foxes,  Sioux,  and  Kickapoos, 
in  1752,  made  a  descent  by  the  river,  as  already  related,  upon 
a  village  of  the  IMissigamis,  and  killed  a  large  number ;  and, 
a  few  years   afterward,  the  murder  of  Pontiac,  a  renowned 


96  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

chief  of  one  of  the  northern  tribes,  who  appear  generally  to 
have  acted  in  concert,  by  a  Kaskaskia,  aroused  a  vengeance 
of  those  allies,  which  was  unappeased  till  scarcely  the  vestige 
of  this  great  nation  remained.  Thus,  about  a  century  of 
savage  war  exterminated  one  of  the  most  numerous  nations 
on  that  part  of  the  continent.  At  this  day,  the  Kaskaskias 
and  Peorias  number,  conjointly,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
persons,  which  is  all  that  is  now  to  be  found  of  the  Illinois 
nation.  It  is  true  that  the  tribes  are  not  always  extinct  when 
the  name  is  lost,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  many  hundreds 
might  have  escaped  the  general  destruction,  who  became 
adopted  by  their  vanquishers,  or  united  with  other  tribes. 
These  associations  are  customary  among  all  the  Indians  ; 
and  instances  are  very  common  both  of  a  union  with  other 
friendly  bands,  and  of  adoption  of  prisoners  of  w^ar. 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  at  the  period  of  the  found- 
ing of  St.  Louis,  there  were  no  Indians  at  that  place  nor  in 
the  whole  extent  of  country  south  of  what  is  now  the  south- 
ern line  of  the  State.  Thus,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  wars 
following  the  death  of  Pontiac,  except  a  portion  of  the  Peoria 
tribe,  who  had  survived  those  wars,  and  who  were  finally  ex- 
tirpated b}^  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  in  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  the  southern  portions  of  the  country  now  forming 
Illinois  and  Missouri,  or  that  below  the  Illinois  and  Missouri 
Rivers,  was  uninhabited,  except  by  the  few  French  and  those 
who  held  the  military  posts  for  the  English  Goverimient. 

Carondelet,  sometimes  called  familiarly  Vide  poches,  was 
settled  in  1767.  In  1769,  Blanchette,  the  hunter,  built  his 
cabin  on  the  bank  of  the  Missouri,  the  first  building  of  the 
village  now  called  St.  Charles.  At  the  same  period  Floris- 
sant and  Portage  des  Sioux  were  first  inhabited. 

In  1780,*  a  party  of  British  and  Indians  made  an  attack 

*  Nicollet,  p.  84. 


HISTORY.  97 

upon  St.  Louis,  and  attcmpled  to  take  possession  of  it,  in 
consequence  of  the  friendly  disposition  of  Spain  to  the  re- 
volted colonies.  There  were  but  150  males  in  the  place, 
while  their  invaders  numbered,  according  to  the  various  state- 
ments, from  900  to  1,500.  The  inhabitants  of  both  sexes, 
the  women  taking  a  part  in  the  battle,  made  such  a  vigorous 
resistance  that  the  assailants  were  compelled  to  retire,  after 
revenging  themselves  by  the  death  of  sixty  and  the  captivity 
of  thirteen  of  the  inhabitants,  who  were  outside  of  the  pali- 
sades. 

In  1785,  called  the  year  of  the  great  flood,  the  Missisippi 
rose  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  higher  at  St.  Louis  than  ever  before 
known,  and  at  some  narrow  points  on  the  river,  thirty  feet. 
The  villages  of  St.  Genevieve,  Fort  Chartres,  Kaskaskia,  St. 
Philippe,  and  Kahoka  were  totally  submerged.  St.  Gene- 
vieve was  at  that  time  situated  on  a  bottom  prairie,  that  has 
since  been  entirely  washed  away. 

The  winter  of  1799  was  distinguished  for  its  extreme 
cold  :  as  had  been  also  the  year  1768. 

In  1778  a  body  of  Virginia  militia,  under  command  of  Gen. 
George  Rogers  Clarke,  made  an  incursion  into  the  Illinois 
country,  then  in  possession  of  the  British,  and  captured  Fort 
Chartres,  Kaskaskia,  and  other  neighboring  posts  on  the  Missi- 
sippi ;  and  St.  Vincent's  on  the  Wabash,  now  known  as  Vin- 
cennes.  In  the  same  year  the  country  was  organized  as  a 
county,  by  the  Legislature  of  Virginia,  called  Illinois  County. 
It  was  subsequently  ceded  by  Virginia  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  1787  made  a  part  of  the  Territory  Northwest  of  the 
Ohio  River.  In  1800,  on  the  establishment  of  a  separate 
territorial  government  in  Indiana,  it  was  included  in  that  gov- 
ernment, having,  at  tliat  period,  about  3,000  inhabitants. 

In  1803  the  United  States,  by  treaty  dated  April  30th,  ac- 
quired of  France  the  whole  of  the  vast  and  beautiful  country 

6 


98  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

known  as  Louisiana,  with  the  same  extent  that  it  formerly 
had  in  tlie  hands  of  France,  and  that,  at  the  date  of  the  treaty, 
it  had  in  the  hands  of  Spain. 

By  act  of  Congress,  of  31st  October  in  the  same  year,  the 
President  of  the  United  States  was  empowered  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  country  ceded,  and  provision  was  made  for 
the  temporary  government  thereof. 

By  act  of  March  26th,  1804,  the  country  was  divided  into 
two  territories.  The  southern  was  called  Orleans,  and  em- 
braced the  country  east  of  the  Missisippi  River  and  south  of 
the  Temtory  of  Missisippi,  and  west  to  the  western  limit  of 
the  purchase.  The  northern  portion,  being  all  the  remainder 
of  the  country  that  was  purchased  by  the  treaty,  was  annexed 
to  Indiana  as  a  district  by  the  name  of  Louisiana.  Indiana 
had  been  erected  into  a  Territorial  Government  by  act  of  May 
7th,  1800,  to  take  effect  on  the  4th  July  followmg :  with  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  which,  by  tlie  ordinance  of  1787, 
for  the  government  of  the  Territory  Nortliwest  of  the  Ohio, 
had  been  secured  to  the  settlers  of  the  northwest.  The  act 
of  1804,  which  annexed  Louisiana  to  Indiana,  extended  these 
rights  and  privileges  to  that  district.  The  executive  poAver, 
which  was  vested  in  the  Governor  of  Indiana,  was  extended 
to  the  district.  The  Governor  and  judges  of  Indiana  were 
empowered  "  to  establish  in  the  said  District  of  Louisiana 
inferior  courts,  and  prescribe  their  jurisdiction  and  duties  ; 
and  to  make  all  laws  which  they  may  deem  conducive  to  the 
good  government  of  tlie  inhabitants  thereof :"  provided,  that 
no  law  shall  be  valid  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  consti- 
tution and  laws  of  the  United  States,  or  which  shall  lay  any 
person  under  restraint  or  disability  on  account  of  liis  religious 
opinions,  profession,  or  worship,  in  all  of  which  he  shall  be 
free  to  maintain  his  own,  and  not  be  burdened  for  those  of 
aF.other."  (Sec.   12.)     And  it  was  provided,  by  sec.  13,  that 


HISTORY.  99 

"  the  laws  in  force  in  tlie  said  District  of  Louisiana  at  the 
commencement  of  this  act,  and  not  inconsistent  with  any  of 
the  provisions  tliercof,  shall  continue  in  force  until  altered, 
modified,  or  repealed  by  the  Governor  and  judges  of  the  In- 
diana territory  as  aforesaid."  The  laws  in  force  at  the  date 
of  the  act  were  those  in  force  at  the  time  of  the  cession,  and 
prior  thereto,  under  the  governments  of  France  and  Spain. 
This  was  the  body  of  law  known  as  the  civil  law, — and  the 
District  of  Louisiana  thus  presented  the  anomaly  in  law  of 
the  common  law  engrafted  upon  the  civil.  These  laws,  it  is 
believed,  have  not  been  repealed  ;  but,  by  the  oversight,  pro- 
bably of  the  judges  and  advocates  in  the  courts,  no  notice 
has  been  taken  of  them,  and  they  have  fallen  into  oblivion, 
and  at  this  day  would  perhaps  be  considered  as  obsolete. 
The  whole  of  Upper  Louisiana  now  stands  in  this  singular 
condition  of  a  country,  in  which  those  laws  that  were  not 
only  her  birthright,  but  were  expressly  saved  to  her  by  statute 
when  the  common  law  was  added  to  her  code,  have  become 
obsolete  and  lost  by  the  prevalence  of  the  common  law,  under 
the  administration  of  judges  and  practice  of  courts  that  were 
unacquainted  with  the  civil  law,  and  through  inadvertence 
did  not  consider  the  force  of  the  statute  by  which  the  older 
was  retained. 

Li  1809  a  separate  government  was  established  over  the 
Territory,  now  State,  of  Illinois,  consisting  of  a  governor  and 
judges,  who  jointly  exercised  tlie  legislative  functions.  At 
that  time  it  contained  about  12,000  inhabitants.  In  1812,  it 
was  allowed  a  legislature  and  a  delegate  in  Congress.  In 
1818  the  State  Constitution  was  adopted,  and  Illinois  was 
admitted  into  tlie  Union. 

At  the  period  of  the  hostilities  between  this  country  and 
Great  Britain,  which  began  in  the  year  1812,  our  government 
had  established  a  military  post,  and  erected  a  fort,  at  Chica- 


100  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

go.  This  was  feebly  garrisoned  for  a  short  time  in  the  sum- 
mer of  that  year.  On  the  15th  of  August,  1812,  Capt, 
Heald,  in  command  of  this  post,  having  received  orders  to 
that  effect,  prepared  to  evacuate  the  fort  and  to  proceed  to 
Detroit  by  land.  Having  destroyed  that  portion  of  the  arms 
and  ammunition  that  would  not  be  necessary  to  his  march, 
and  could  not  be  conveniently  transported,  he  commenced 
his  march  with  fifty-four  regulars  and  twelve  militia,  and 
accompanied  by  an  escort  from  Fort  Wayne,  and  a  few 
friendly  Miamis.  The  women  and  children  accompanied  the 
expedition.  The  party  had  proceeded  only  a  little  over  a 
mile,  when  they  were  attacked  by  a  body  of  hostile  Indians. 
The  friendly  Indians  stood  aloof,  and  Capt.  Heald,  after  a 
short  skirmish,  in  which  all  the  militia  and  twenty-six  regu- 
lars were  killed,  surrendered  on  a  promise  of  protection  by 
one  of  the  chiefs.  The  Indian  force  amounted  to  500,  their 
loss  in  the  battle  was  fifteen. 

At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  the  Sac  and  Fox  Indians 
resided  at  the  country  about  the  mouth  of  Rock  River. 
They  were  induced  to  join  the  English,  and  operate  with 
them  and  their  other  red  allies  against  the  United  States. 
They  were  present  at  one  or  two  skirmishes  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  lake,  and  it  is  believed  that  they  composed  the 
force,  or  a  part  of  it,  of  the  attacking  party  at  Chicago.  I 
think  this  is  asserted  in  a  narration  of  the  wars  of  that  tribe, 
published  some  years  since.  But  being  disgusted,  it  is  said, 
with  the  barbarous  atrocities  of  the  allied  Eno-lish  and  red 
men,  they,  in  a  very  short  time,  abandoned  the  cause,  and 
returned  to  their  country,  where  they  remained  quiet  during 
the  war. 

In  1815,  the  several  tribes  of  Indians  inliabiting  the  north- 
west, who  had  been  drawn  into  hostilities  with  the  United 
States,  by  the  wiles  and  gratuities  of  Great  Britain,  made 


HISTORY.  lOi 

treaties  of  peace  and  friendsliip.  The  Polawatamis  of  the 
river  Illinois,  the  Kickapoos,  the  lowas,  the  Tetons,  the 
Sioux  of  the  lakes,  the  Sioux  of  the  river  St.  Peter's,  the 
Piankeshaw^s,  the  Chippewa,  Ottawa,  and  Potawatamis,  with 
bands  of  the  Wyandot,  Delaware,  Seneca,  Shawnee  and 
Miami  tribes,  all  of  which  eight  tribes  and  bands  united  in 
one  treaty  ;  the  Yaiiktons,  the  Sacs  of  the  Missouri,  the 
Foxes,  the  Osages,  the  Kanzas,  the  Mahas,  each  came  into 
treaties  of  amity.  The  Sacs,  of  Rock  River,  were  invited 
by  the  Commissioners  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to 
enter  into  treaty  at  the  same  time  :  they  declined  it  at  this 
time,  but  in  the  succeeding  year,  in  1816,  they  signed  arti- 
cles of  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  ;  and  in  the  same 
year  three  other  tribes  of  the  Sioux,  who  are  designated  as 
the  Sioux  of  the  Leaf,  the  Sioux  of  the  Broad  Leaf,  and  the 
Sioux  who  shoot  in  the  pine  tops,  also  the  Winnebagoes  of 
Wisconsin  River,  and  in  1817,  the  Menominis,  Ottos,  and 
Poncaras  or  Puncas.  In  1819,  similar  treaties  were  made 
with  the  Pani  Mahas,  the  Pitavirate  or  Noisy  Panis,  the 
Pani  Republic,  and  the  Grand  Panis. 

In  1816,  the  united  tribes  of  Ottawas,  Chippewas  and 
Potawatamis,  residing  on  the  Illinois  and  Milwaki  Rivers, 
and  the  southwestern  parts  of  Lake  Michigan,  relinquished 
their  right  to  the  lands  ceded  by  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  in  1804, 
lying  south  of  a  due  west  line  from  the  southern  extremity 
of  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Missisippi,  and  also  ceded  a  trad 
beffinninff  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Fox  River  of  Illinois,  ten 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  said  Fox  River,  and  extending  to 
Lake  Michigan,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Des  Plaines 
about  equally,  and  in  its  whole  width  twenty  miles. 

In  1818  Illinois  was  admitted  uito  the  Union  as  a  State, 
and  Missouri  in  1821. 

After  the  organization  of  the  state  government  in  Illinois, 


102  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

the  population  increased  rapidly,  and  pressed  upon  the 
Indian  territories  and  settlements.  Jealousies  arose,  aggres- 
sions took  place,  irritations  were  created,  on  both  sides.     In 

1827,  the  Indians  attacked  two  keel-boats  which  were  trans- 
porting military  stores  to  Fort  Snelling,  and  killed  two  of  their 
men,  and  wounded  others.  General  Atkinson,  thereupon, 
marched  into  the  Winnebago  country,  and  brought  in  Red 
Bird,  a  chief,  and  six  others,  who  were  held  in  confinement 
for  trial.  Red  Bird  died  in  prison.  The  others  were  tried, 
and  a  part  of  them  convicted,  and  executed  in  December, 

1828.  Black  Hawk,  a  Sac  chief,  whose  Indian  name  was 
Muckatai-mishakiahkiah,  was  one  of  those  imprisoned,  but 
he  was  acquitted  for  want  of  proof.     It  is  said  that  he  after- 
ward  confessed  his  participation.     His  long  imprisonment 
increased  his  former  irritation.     It  had  inflicted  a  rankling 
wound,  which  the  blood  of  the  Americans  alone  could  cure. 
In  1830,  a  treaty  was  made  by  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  and  other 
tribes,  with  the  American  government,  in  which  they  ceded 
all  their  lands  east  of  the  Missisippi.    Black  Hawk  dissented, 
refused  to  leave  the  ceded  country,  and  was  supported  by  a 
party  of  the  Sacs.     Having  received   personal  abuse   and 
insult,  it  is  said,  from  the  whites,  instigated  by  his  opposition 
to  the  treaty,  and  a  desire  to  retain  his  old  home  ;  irritated  by 
personal  indignities,  and  being  promised  the  aid  of  the  Cliip- 
pewas,    Ottawas,  Potawatamis,  and  Winnebagoes,  and   in- 
formed, also,  that  the  British  were  ready  to  help  him,  he 
commenced  hostilities.     Previously,  however,  it  is  said,  he 
proposed  a  compromise  with  Keokuk,  the  head  of  the  treaty 
party,  and  offered  to  give  up  the  mineral  region  on  the  pro- 
mise of  Keokuk  that  he  would  endeavor  to  have  the  Rock 
River  peninsula,  where  they  had  long  resided  and  cultivated, 
and  where  they  had  buried  their  fathers,  restored  to  them. 
In  expectation  that  this  arrangement  would  be  made,  they 


HISTORY.  103 

went  on  ihcir  winter  hunt  in  1830;  and  on  tlicir  return,  in 
the  spring  of  1831,  found  their  village  and  country  in  posses- 
sion of  the  wliites.     On  the  appearance  of  the  United  States 
troops,  Black  Hawk  and  party,  who  had  previously  refused 
to  leave  their  lands,  fled  across   tlie   river.     In  1832,  they 
re-crossed,  when  a  brigade  of  one  thousand  mounted  volun- 
teers was  organized,  armed,  and  equipped,  and  immediately 
marclied  to  Rock  Island,  where  they  found  General  Atkinson, 
with   four   hundred  rcgrdars   and   a  small   body  of  militia. 
General  Whitesides,  the  commander  of  the  volunteer  corps, 
marched  up  Rock  River,  and  burned  the  prophet's  town,  a 
village  of  the  Indians  ;  and  this  must  be  considered  the  com- 
mencemcnt   of  formal  hostilities.     Upon  Rock  River  they 
found  another  small  band  of  volunteers,  under  Major  Still- 
man.     This  last  band,  having  undertaken  a  scouting  expedi- 
tion to  the  distance  of  thirty  miles  north  of  Dixon's  Ferry, 
unexpectedly  met  a  party  of  Black  Hawk's  men  in  ambush, 
and  immediately  took  to  a  precipitate  and  disorderly  flight. 
Their  commander  ordered  them  to  retreat  to  the  high  ground 
and  make  a  stand  ;  but  so  terror-stricken  were  they,  that  they 
forgot  the  latter  part  of  their  order  till  they  had  reached  their 
head-quarters  at  the  river.     This  rout  still  furnishes  the  sub- 
ject of  many  a  quip  and  piece  of  merriment  at  the  expense 
of  those  who  were  engaged.     It  is  supposed  the  Indian  force 
was   about  seventy.     This  was  on  the  1 4lh  of  May.     On 
the  24th  of  June,  a  party  of  the  militia,  said  to  be  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty,  on  their  march  to  CJalena,  were  met  by  a 
superior  number  of  Indians,  about  two  hundred,  and,  after 
a  severe  contest,  retired  into  their  blockhouse.     On  the  21st 
of  July,  a  general  engagement  took  place,  near  the  Wiscon- 
sin, between   General   Henry's  brigade  of  militia  and   the 
whole  Sac  force.     Black  1  fawk  was  driven  from  the  field, 
leaving  sixty-two  of  liis  men  dead.     General  Hemy's  brigade 


104  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

went  in  pursuit,  and,  on  the  next  day,  reached  the  Blue 
Mounds  ;  and  being  rejoined  by  General  Atkinson  and  the 
regular  troops,  and  the  other  brigades,  the  whole  force  arrived 
at  Helena,  on  the  Wisconsin,  on  the  26th.  On  the  2d  of 
August  they  overtook  Black  Hawk  near  the  Bad  Axe,  and  again 
defeated  him  in  a  decisive  action.  The  American  force  con- 
sisted of  four  hundred  regulars  and  parts  of  Henry's,  Posey's 
and  Alexander's  brigades  of  militia,  in  the  whole  1300  men. 
General  Atkinson,  in  his  account  of  these  engagements, 
states  that  the  Indian  loss,  in  both,  was  three  hundred.  He 
returns  only  eighteen  killed,  and  four  wounded,  of  his  ow^n 
men,  at  Bad  Axe  ;  and  states  the  Indian  loss  at  one  hundred 
and  fifty  killed,  and  thirty-five  captured.  Black  Hawk  him- 
self escaped  ;  but,  about  three  weeks  afterward,  was  brought 
into  the  camp  a  prisoner  by  some  Winnebagoes.  Thus 
ended  the  three  months'  movement,  commonly  called  the 
Black  Hawk  war.  It  was  succeeded  immediately  by  a  ces- 
sion of  a  strip  of  country  on  the  west  of  the  Missisippi,  fifty 
miles  wide,  extending  north  from  Missouri  to  the  neutral 
ground,  in  a  treaty  concluded  by  General  Scott  in  September 
of  the  same  year  ;  and,  in  the  summer  of  1 833,  the  settlement 
of  Iowa  by  the  white  man  was  commenced.  Two  small 
strips  were  successively  purchased  in  1836  and  1837  ;  and, 
in  1842,  a  vast  tract,  estimated  to  contain  about  23,000  square 
miles,  or  15,000,000  acres,  centrally  situated  between  the 
two  great  rivers,  was  added  to  the  former  purchases. 

On  the  1st  of  August,  1829,  by  a  treaty  with  the  Winne- 
bagoes, the  United  States  acquired  a  large  tract,  beginning  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Pee-kectanon,  or  Pectanon,  and  following 
up  that  river  and  the  Sugar  Creek  branch,  and  across  north- 
wardly to  Fox  River,  and  down  the  Wisconsin  to  the  mouth, 
and  southerly  from  thence  to  Rock  River,  at  a  point  forty 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  up  that  river  to  Pectanon.     A  large 


HISTORY.  105 

and  valuril)lc  tract  of  about  one  hundred  miles,  north  and 
south  ;  and,  on  its  gi'catest  extent,  cast  and  west,  about  the 
same,  being  6000  or  7000  square  miles. 

And,  on  the  29th  of  July,  same  year,  another  large  tract, 
between  Rock  River  and  Lake  Michigan,  and  a  strip  on  the 
Missisippi,  from  Rock  River  to  the  reservation  on  the  Wis- 
consin, was  ceded  by  the  Chippewas,  Ottawas,  and  Pota- 
watamis,  which  cessions  included  nearly  all  the  land  between 
Lake  Michigan  and  the  Missisippi,  and  between  Rock  River 
and  Wisconsin. 

By  a  treaty,  made  the  15th  of  July,  1830,  a  tract  of  twenty 
miles  in  width,  extending  from  the  Missisippi  to  the  Des 
Moines,  was  ceded  by  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  ;  and  another 
sinuhir  tract  adjoining  it  on  the  north,  by  the  Sioux.  Its 
southern  line,  on  the  Missisippi,  is  near  the  Wisconsin. 

On  the  8th  of  February,  1831,  the  Menominis  ceded  a  tract 
lying  between  Winnebago  Lake,  Fox  River,  and  Green  Bay, 
on  the  north,  and  Mil  wake  River,  south,  and  Lake  Michigan, 
east.  And  in  October,  1832,  the  Potawatamis  ceded  their 
land  lying  between  Chicago  River  and  Kanakee,  and  the 
Fox  of  Illinois. 

In  September,  1832,  the  Winnebagoes  ceded  the  land  lying 
on  the  west  of  the  Rock  River,  above  the  Pectanon  branch, 
to  Lake  Puckaway,  and  bounded  west  by  their  cession  of 
August,  1829. 

In  1836,  Michigan  was  made  a  sovereign  state,  and 
admitted  into  the  Union.  A  new  territorial  government  was, 
at  the  same  time,  organized  over  Wisconsin,  which  included 
all  llie  Black  Hawk  purchase,  and  extended  west  to  the  Mis- 
somi  River.  In  1^<38,  a  new  territorial  government  was 
cslabhshed  over  that  portion  of  Wisconsin  which  lay  west  of 
the  Missisippi,  called  Iowa,  in  the  live  years  intermediate 
between  the  departure  of  llie  Sacs  and  Foxes,  in  the  summer 

6+ 


106  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

of  1833,  and  the  establishment  of  the  territorial  government 
in  1838,  the  Black  Hawk  Purchase  had  gathered  a  white 
population  of  22,000.  In  1840,  at  the  taking  of  the  census, 
in  June,  it  contained  43,000.  It  is  supposed  that  the  usual 
annual  increase  by  emigration  since  that  time  has  been  about 
the  same,  or  something  near  ten  thousand  yearly  ;  and,  with 
a  sufficient  allowance  for  an  augmented  natural  increase,  in 
proportion  to  the  greatly  augmented  basis,  the  whole  yearly 
addition  to  the  population  cannot  be  less  than  12,000,  or,  for 
the  six  years,  to  June,  1846,  72,000  ;  which,  added  to  the 
43,000,  makes  the  whole  115,000.  This  is  believed  to  be 
under  the  true  amount,  as,  in  1843,  and  the  spring  of  1846, 
an  unusual  impulse  was  given  to  emigration  by  the  acquisi- 
tion of  new  territory,  and  the  allowance  for  natural  increase 
is  made  very  small.  It  is  more  probable  that  the  whole 
actual  population  at  this  time  (July  4,  1846)  is  150,000. 

Wisconsin,  as  constituted  by  the  division  into  two  terri- 
tories, had,  at  that  time,  July,  1838,  21,000  inhabitants.  By 
the  census  of  1840,  it  had  34,000.  Its  increase  in  the  two 
intermediate  years  had  been  much  less  than  that  of  Iowa,  but 
in  some  subsequent  periods  it  has  been  very  great;  and  it 
contains,  by  a  recent  census,  about  160,000.  The  least  total 
amount  that  can  be  assigned  to  the  two  territories  is  little 
more  than  300,000,  at  this  time. 

Acts  have  passed  Congress,  in  June  and  August,  1846,  for 
admitting  both  territories  into  tlie  Union  with  the  attributes 
of  sovereignty.  They  will  probably  be  adopted  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  and,  in  the  present  year,  two  new  and  bright  stars  will 
be  added  to  the  Union. 

At  the  moment  that  Congress  was  acting  upon  the  admis- 
sion of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin  into  the  Union,  a  treaty  was  in 
progress,  and  is  now  completed,  by  wliich  the  Potawatamis 
have  ceded  their  lands  lying  east  of  the  Missisippi,  Missouri, 


HISTORY.  107 

and  between  the  Sioux  and  the  Missouri  State  nortli  hnc.  The 
tract  contains  0000  or  7000  square  miles.  The  Indians 
have  stipuhited  to  remove  in  two  years.  By  this  cession,  the 
Indian  title  has  become  extinct  in  the  whole  tract  between  the 
Missisippi  and  Missouri  Rivers.  The  Sioux  hold  a  strip  on 
the  northern  frontier  of  the  new  state,  which  is  the  only 
Indian  country,  except  the  neutral  ground,  now  within  the 
limits  fixed  by  Congress  for  the  State  boundary. 

The  authorities  relied  upon  for  the  foregoing  statements  are,  Gabriel 
Sagard,  Hennepin,  Lahontan,  Charlevoix,  Histoire  Gen.  des  Voyages, 
Paris,  1757;  Bossu,  Lockman,  Churchill,  Heriot's  Hist.  Canada,  Pike, 
Schoolcraft,  Nicollet,  Long,  Laws  of  Congress,  Public  Documents,  &c. 


PART  III. 


Population — Political  System — Civil  Divisions — 
Municipalities — Topography. 

The  population  of  this  region,  at  the  present  time,  exceeds 
by  computation,  750,000  ;*  viz. — in  Illinois,  north  of  the 
Illinois  River,  about  240,000 ;  in  Missouri,  north  of  the 
Missouri  River,  about  240,000;  in  Wisconsin,  about  160,- 
000;  in  Iowa,  probably  exceeding  120,000.  This  multi- 
tude has  nearly  all  been  planted  on  the  territory  within 
twenty  years,  mostly  indeed  within  fifteen,  excepting  a  few 
scattered  settlers  on  the  Illinois  and  Missisippi  and  Missouri 
Rivers.  Galena  was  settled  in  1828.  They  are  from  all 
States  of  the  Union,  from  Germany,  Ireland,  England,  Scot- 
land and  Canada.  There  are  a  considerable  number  of 
Franco- American  families  from  Canada  and  from  the  early 
French  colonies  in  the  Missisippi  valley ;  and  it  is  as  com- 
mon to  hear  a  certain  uncouth  French  dialect,  known  in  that 
country  under  the  name  of  Gumbo  French  (a  term  applied 
both  to  the  people  and  the  dialect),  jabbered  in  the  streets  of 

•By  the  census  of  1840,  Northern  Missouri  contained  1»)0,821  ;  Northern 
Illinois,  including  counties  that  lay  across  the  Illinois  River,  100,755; 
Iowa,  43,000;  Wisconsin,  30,000;  total  393,000.  I  have  added  50  per 
cent,  to  Missouri  and  Illinois.  Iowa  has  increased  at  the  rate  of  about 
12,000  per  year,  which  would  be  115,000.  Wisconsin,  by  a  census  just 
taken,  is  found  to  have  155,000,  and  three  counties  not  returned. 


V 


110  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Dubuque,  as  it  is  to  hear  English  spoken  there.  The  greater 
part  of  this  population  between  Illinois  and  Rock  Rivers, 
and  between  the  Missouri  and  Iowa  Rivers,  comprising  a 
district  of  some  two  hundred  miles  in  width  from  north  to 
south,  in  the  centre,  but  narrowing  toward  the  extremities,  is 
from  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  South.  Pemisylvania  and 
Vircrinia,  west  of  the  Alleghany,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana, 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  have  sent  their  colonists  to 
these  latitudes.  North  of  these  lines  the  larger  portion  is 
from  the  Northern  States,  east  of  the  mountains,  and  fi'om 
Europe.  They  are,  many  of  them,  men  who  have  not 
derived  much  knowledge  from  education,  but  have  been 
schooled  only  in  the  world,  and  learned  in  the  knowledge  of 
men.  They  have  shaken  hands  with  privations  and  hard- 
ships, and  with  laxiuy' have  but  little  acquaintance.  There 
are,  however,  manv  well  informed,  of  the  softer  as  weU  as 
of  the  rougher  sex,  living  in  the  homeliest  style  of  rustic  life. 
Iowa  is  divided  into  39  Counties,  25  of  which  are  orga- 
nized,— and  into  townships  of  greater  or  less  extent  accord- 
ing to  population,  but  generally  comprehending  more  than 
one  geographical  township,  into  which  the  whole  country  is 
first  divided  by  the  government  surveys.  Other  portions, 
where  the  population  is  concentrated  at  particular  points,  are 
incorporated  into  towns  or  cities.  Between  these  two  last, 
there  is  \ery  little  difference  in  substance,  if  any.  The  mu- 
nicipal authorities  have  in  each  very  similar  powers.  In  the 
towns,  affairs  are  managed  by  a  single  board  called  trustees, 
and  in  the  other,  in  the  more  usual  form  of  Mayor  and  Alder- 
men. In  either  case  the  municipal  government  has  the 
power  to  assess  and  levy  the  taxes,  to  ordain  the  by-laws,  and 
to  appoint  the  officers.  In  the  townships,  as  pohtically 
established,  the  government  is  in  the  hands  of  inspectors. 
But  even  in  these  smaller  depositories  of  power  the  differ- 


POLITICAL    SYSTEM.  Ill 

ence  consists  more  in  the  actual  exercise  than  in  legal  grada- 
tion. The  power  to  be  exerted  is  little  else  than  appointment 
of  minor  officers.  Those  Uttle  democracies,  erected  in  some 
of  the  States  under  the  name  of  towns,  where  all  the  powers 
of  the  local  government  are  exercised  by  a  vote  of  the  peo- 
ple, are  wholly  unknown  here. 

Lee  county  is  situated  in  the  point  between  the  Rivers 
Missisippi  and  Des  Moines.  It  is  veiy^  thickly  populated, 
notwithstanding  a  large  portion  of  its  lands  were  reserved  to 
the  Half  Breeds  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  Indians,  and  there  was 
consequently  a  difficulty  in  obtaining  title.  This  difficulty 
has  been  overcome  by  purchase  and  partition,  and  the  settlers 
now  are  owners  of  the  soil.  The  Des  Moines  Rapids  ex- 
tend over  a  greater  part  of  the  Missisippi  boundary,  upon 
which  are  situated  several  towTis  which  promise  to  be  among 
the  flourishing  places  of  the  State.  Keokuck  is  below  the 
rapids.  It  is  seated  on  the  blufl",  which  here  comes  quite 
to  the  river,  and  by  its  steep  and  high  ascent,  makes  a  very 
inconvenient  site  for  a  to\\'n.  But  the  advantage  of  its  situa- 
tion overcomes  this  unkindness  of  its  topographical  charac- 
ter, and  bemg  at  the  mouth  of  the  Des  Moines,  and  at  the 
foot  of  the  lower  rapids,  at  the  point  where  both  the  obstruc- 
tions of  rock  and  ice  begin,  and  having  a  good  landing,  it 
must  of  necessity  have  both  a  rapid  and  a  solid  progress. 
Nashville,  on  the  rapids,  has  a  better  situation,  though  this 
also  is  built  on  rather  a  steep  ascent.  Montrose,  at  the  head 
of  the  rapids,  the  site  of  old  Fort  Des  Moines,  is  situated  on 
a  low  ground,  in  a  wide  part  of  the  river  opposite  the  Mor- 
mon town,  Nauvoo.  Here  there  is  a  broad  and  handsome 
plat  sufficient  for  a  large  city.  The  town  has  a  ver}"  slow 
progress,  and  will  not  keep  pace  with  some  others  on  the 
river.  Fort  Madison  is  the  most  populous  town  in  the  coun- 
ty, situated  about  twelve  miles  above  the  head  of  the  rapids, 


112  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

on  the  Missisippi,  on  one  of  the  finest  town  sites  in  that  part 
of  the  river.  It  is  an  elevated  bank,  twenty  feet  or  more  above 
the  water  mark,  forming  nearly  a  level  of  sufficient  extent  for 
a  city  of  the  largest  class.  Its  soil  is  sandy,  and  from  its 
relations  with  the  river  must  be  very  healthy.  It  has  at  pre- 
sent, by  estimation,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  inhabitants. 
There  are  some  interior  flourishing  villages  in  this  county. 

Des  Moines  is  next  on  the  river,  extending  from  the  Che- 
kakwe  or  Checaqua  River,  nearly  to  the  Iowa.  Its  river 
boundary  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  Lee  county,  the  bank 
being,  for  the  greater  part,  a  low  bottom,  and  presenting  only 
one  favorable  site  for  a  town,  which  is  at  the  mouth  of 
Shokokon  or  Flint  Creek,  at  a  bluff  called  by  the  Indians, 
Shokokon,  from  the  abundance  of  chert  found  on  the  surface, 
and  by  the  Whites,  Flint  Hills.  The  Indian  appellation  or 
mineral  feature  to  which  it  was  owing,  should  have  furnished 
a  name  to  the  modern  town  :  and  Chertburg,  or  Shokokon, 
would  have  as  good  sound,  and  more  sense,  than  the  thread- 
bare Burlington.  The  place  is  partly  on  the  irregular  edge 
of  a  bluff,  and  partly  on  a  low  bottom,  bemg  an  inconvenient 
place  for  a  town  ;  but  having  had  a  great  impidsion  at  first 
from  the  location  of  the  land  sales  there,  and  the  temporary 
seat  of  government  also,  it  made  a  progress,  wliich,  backed 
by  a  very  populous  interior  behind  it,  and  having  a  good 
landing,  has  been  more  rapid  than  any  other  place,  and  it  is 
now  beyond  all  other  towns  in  the  Territory  in  population,  in 
trade,  in  prosperity  and  wealth.  Tlie  number  of  its  inhabit- 
ants is  exceeding  two  thousand.  The  county  of  Des  Moines 
is  the  third  in  population.  Van  Buren  and  Lee  being  first  and 
second.  The  three  counties  have  probably  not  nuich  less 
than  40,000  inhabitants,  which  is  very  nearly  equally  divided. 
The  land  of  Des  Moines  county  is  good ;  there  being  little 
difference  in  quality  throughout  this  Territory.     Being,  how- 


TOPOGRAPHY.  113 

ever,  of  rather  a  large  proportion  of  clay,  and  of  rather  a 
level  surface,  it  is  not  ready  for  the  plough  so  early  as  some 
lands  further  north.  Augusta  is  a  small  village  on  Skunk 
River,  about  eight  or  ten  miles  from  I^urlington.  New  Lon- 
don, Franklin,  and  other  small  villages,  are  scattered  upon 
the  prairie,  in  this  county. 

Louisa  is  a  very  small  county  on  tiic  river,  next  above 
Des  Moines.  Wapello,  on  tlie  Iowa  River,  is  tlic  capi- 
tal. It  has  two  or  three  other  small  villages,  but  is  prin- 
cipally remarkable  for  having  formerly  had  an  Indian  town, 
the  residence  of  Black  Hawk,  within  it,  and  the  river 
Iowa  running  through  it.  A  part  of  the  large  island,  called 
by  the  Indians  Mascotin  (E^rairie  Island),  is  in  this  coun- 
ty. The  word,  by  a  natural  metamorphosis,  has  been 
called  by  the  French  Muscodin  and  Muscatine,  and  under 
that  change  has  given  name  to  the  slough  or  branch  of  the 
river  that  divides  it  from  the  main,  and  to  the  county  at  its 
upper  end,  adjoining  Louisa.  This  island  presents  a  singu- 
lar feature  in  the  topography  of  this  part  of  the  river.  It  is 
nearly  twenty  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  about  half  of 
that  extent  in  the  other  direction,  and  is  a  bottom  prairie,  but 
little  elevated  above  the  river,  and  nearly  a  mechanical  level. 
It  is  made  by  a  small  portion  of  the  river  which  passes 
around  it,  joining  the  main  stream  again,  after  a  course  of 
twenty-five  or  thirty  miles,  a  short  distance  above  the  Iowa 
River  mouth.  The  upper  end  of  the  island  is  about  twenty- 
five  miles  below  the  moulli  of  Rock  River,  and  nearly  the 
same  above  the  mouth  of  Iowa. 

Muscatine  county,  begimiing  on  the  island,  and  extending 
some  sixteen  or  eighteen  miles  above  it,  is  well  watered,  hav- 
ing the  Red  Cedar  traversing  it  from  north  to  south,  at  ten  or 
twelve  miles  from  the  Missisippi,  in  nearly  a  parallel  direc- 
tion, and  the  Wapsinonoc  Creek  farther  west,  a  tributary  of 


114  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Cedar.     This  is  a  well  settled  county.     North  of  the  Iowa 
River  the  soil  loses  some  of  its  alumine,  with  which  it  was 
rather  surcharged  in  Des  jMoines,  and  becomes  more  mellow 
by  an  admixture  of  sand,  which  is  probably  silico-cretaceous. 
The  surface  also  becomes  more  undulating,  and  the  union  of 
these  two  conditions  overcomes  a  degree,  more  or  less,  of 
latitude,  and  the  season  for  begimiing  cultivation  is,  there- 
fore, about  the  same  in  this  distance.     Apart  from  this  con- 
sideration, I  think  the  change  is  for  the  better  in  regard  to 
fertility,  and  that  the  tract  of  country  between  the  Iowa  and 
the  Maquoketa,  or  Makwaketa,  is  perhaps  rather  the  best  on 
the  river   in  this  point.     It  is,  however,  inferior  in  another, 
hardly  of  less  importance  to  the  farmer,  that  is,  in  the  quantity 
of  timber.     With  this  article  the  region  now  under  our  obser- 
vation is  rather  scantily  supphed.     Bloomington  is  the  county 
seat  of  Muscatine  county.     There  are  a  few^  small  villages 
beside,  Moscow  on  the  Cedar,  and  Salem  and  Wyoming  on  the 
Missisippi.     The  City  of  Ellenborough,  a  mere  embryo  with  a 
sounding  name  and  a  most  ample  charter,  has  been  projected, 
and  having  a  good  site,  may  at  some  day  exchange  its  em- 
bryo for  an  actual  existence.     Bloomington  is   a  place   of 
much  business.     It  has  one  of  the  best  positions,  geograplu- 
cally,   in  the   territorv^,   and  is   one  of  the  most  important 
towns.     Its  population  probably  is  nearly  1500.     It  has  the 
disadvantage  of  a  bad  site,  both  local  and  relative,  it  being 
on  a  steep  bluff,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Mascotin 
Island  and  Slough  above  mentioned,  which  last  is  apt  to  be 
a  cause  of  disease. 

The  region  above  Muscatine  county,  as  far  as  Maquoketa 
River,  including  Scott  and  Clinton  counties,  and  part  of 
Jackson,  is  very  scantily  supphed  with  timber.  It  is  highly 
fertile,  however,  and  a  handsome  country.  The  banks  of  the 
river,  on  both  sides,  from  Bloomington  to  the  Wabesepinecon, 


TOPOGRAPHY.  115 

are  the  most  beautiful  on  the  River  from  the  mouth  to  this 
point;  and  on  the  west  side,  the  whole  line,  for  a  distance  of 
nearly  forty  miles,  from  Bloomington  to  Spencer's  Creek, 
would  make  one  continuous  city  site.  Davenport,  in  Scott 
county,  about  thirty  miles  above  Bloomington,  is  on  a  most 
beautiful  inclined  plane,  almost  of  a  mathematical  exactness, 
of  a  very  slight  inclination,  only  sufficient  to  be  perceived  by 
the  eye,  and  to  shed  the  waters.  It  is  sufficiently  sandy  to 
become  dry  immediately  after  a  rain.  This  plane  extends  back 
about  half  a  mile,  from  the  river  to  the  bluff.  The  banks 
on  both  sides  are  high  and  dry  ;  and  immediately  fronting 
Davenport  is  the  town  of  Rock  Island  on  the  Illinois  side. 
The  river  is  little  more  than  half  a  mile  wide.  Immediately 
above  the  two  towns  is  the  island  of  Rock  Island,  havino-  a 
rock  foundation  :  a  very  unusual  character,  the  islands  gene- 
rally, in  this  river,  being  alluvial.  The  scenery  at  this  point 
is  ver}^  beautiful — said  to  excel,  in  this  particular,  any  spot 
below  Lake  Pepin. 

Some  individuals  have  taken  advantage  of  the  division  of 
the  river  into  two  streams,  at  this  point,  to  appropriate  the 
narrow  portion  passing  betAveen  the  Island  and  the  Ilhnois  shore 
to  milling  purposes.  By  running  a  dam  across  at  the  head 
of  the  island — which,  by  reason  of  the  very  little  depth  of 
the  water,  and  a  rock  bottom,  they  were  able  to  do  at  a  very 
trifling  expense — they  have  availed  of  this  immense  body  of 
water,  being  about  one-third  of  the  whole  volume  of  the  river, 
and  with  a  head  of  five  feet.  Beside  this,  there  are  several 
other  points  upon  these  rapids,  where  equal  advantage  may 
be  made  of  the  river  in  this  way.  And  at  a  time  not  remote, 
this  will  become  a  principal  grain  market  for  the  country 
around,  and  a  place  of  great  industrial  activity.  Rockingham 
is  a  small  village  four  miles  below  Davenport,  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  Rock  River.     At  the  purchase  of  the  territory 


116  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

by  our  government,  the  Indians  reserved  a  tract  of  one  mile 
square  at  the  head  of  the  rapids,  and  a  similar  tract  at  the 
foot,  for  Mr.  Antoine  Leclaire  their  interpreter.  On  the  lower 
reservation  is  the  town  of  Davenport,  and  it  is  intended  to 
have  another  town  on  the  upper  tract.  Adjoining  the  upper 
reservation,  above  it,  is  the  little  village  of  Berlin.  Fifteen 
miles  further  up  the  stream  is  another,  Camanche.  This  last 
is  in  Clinton  county.  Fifteen  miles  to  the  west  of  this  last 
a  town  has  been  laid  out  for  the  county  seat  of  the  county. 
It  is  called  De  Witt.  The  site  is  in  a  handsome  prairie, 
having  groves  upon  three  sides,  at  a  distance  of  from  one  to 
three  miles,  and  to  the  northward  open  to  a  much  greater 
distance.  There  are  many  eligible  spots  for  settlement  in 
this  as  well  as  in  Scott  and  all  the  northern  river  counties. 
The  settlements  have  been  made  lower  on  the  stream,  and 
have  progressed  westward  a  hundred  miles  from  the  river, 
while  these  fine  lands  have  been  passed  over  from  a  dislike 
to  go  so  far  north, — a  very  insufficient  consideration  to  place 
in  the  balance  against  contiguity  to  the  river  ;  which,  furnish- 
ing a  great  channel  for  transportation,  must  always  make  a 
difference  in  the  price  of  produce  in  the  river  counties  by  no 
means  to  be  overlooked  :  while  the  difference  in  temperature 
is  so  slight  that  neither  man  nor  beast  is  sensible  of  it,  and 
the  feeding  season  would  not  be  more  than  a  wxek  or  two, 
at  most,  longer  in  these  counties  than  in  the  lower  counties  of 
the  territory.  Lyons  is  a  busy  little  village,  well  situated  on 
the  river,  in  this  county,  about  ten  miles  above  Camanche. 
At  this  point  begins  a  change  in  the  topography  of  the  land 
adjacent  to  the  river.  The  road  from  Lyons  to  Charleston, 
about  twenty  miles  above,  in  Jackson  county,  is  over  a  very 
rough,  broken  country,  very  little  of  whicli,  in  a  distance  of 
three  or  four  miles  from  the  river,  is  favorable  to  cultivation. 
It  is  generally  covered  with  timber.     The  land,  however,  at 


TorOGUAPIIY.  117 

a  few  miles  back  is  very  irood  ;  and  a  man  who  wislies  to  sec 
the  handsomest  timber  in  tlic  territory,  must  go  to  the  forks 
of  tlie  Maquoketa  or  Makwaketa ;  and  upon  its  south  fork 
are  some  of  the  finest  prairie  and  prairie  farms.  Tiie  north- 
ern part  of  Jackson  county,  between  this  river  and  Dubuque, 
is  generally  well-timbered  and  well-watered,  and  is  a  very 
inviting  tract  for  settlement.  This  is  also  one  of  the  best 
watered  tracts  in  the  territory.  Makwaketa  River,  Tetes  des 
Morts,  Deep,  Brush,  and  Bear  Creek,  and  smaller  streams, 
drain  the  country — some  of  them  having  fine  water  power. 
Twenty-two  miles  above  Charleston  is  Bcllevue,  also  in  this 
county,  situated  on  a  fine  plateau,  well  elevated  above  the 
river.  Andrew,  in  the  centre  of  the  county,  is  laid  out  for 
the  county  seat.  Between  the  Wabesepinicon  and  Makwa- 
keta Rivers,  is  a  region  furnished  very  abundantly  with  iron. 
At  Bellevue,  a  striking  change  takes  place  in  the  geological 
formation ;  the  line  of  the  lead  mineral  commencing  here,  and 
passing  up  to  the  northwest  through  the  counties  of  Dubuque 
and  part  of  Clayton,  and  thence  east  into  Wisconsin,  defines 
perhaps  the  richest  lead  deposit  in  the  world.  It  is  of  the 
kind  called  Galena,  or  sulphuret  of  lead.  The  river  marks 
a  remarkable  division  in  the  character  of  the  "  diggings," 
tiiose  on  the  east  side  being  clay  "  diggings,"  in  which  the 
mineral  is  found  in  the  clay,  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface, 
while  on  the  west  side  the  miner  is  obliged  lo  sink  his  shaft 
through  the  rock  more  than  one  hundred  feet.  It  is  thought, 
however,  that  the  greater  abundance  of  the  mineral  in  the 
rock  deposit  is  more  than  a  counterbalance  to  the  case  of 
obtaining  it  in  the  clay. 

Dubuque,  situated  in  a  bay  of  the  river,  upon  a  sandy 
alluvion,  in  the  centre  of  these  "  diggings,"  is  the  second 
town  in  the  territory  in  population  and  business.  The  rough 
character  of  the   countiy  upon  the    river   bank,   which,  as 


118  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

already  said,  commences  near  Lyons,  continues  througli  this 
county,  and  as  far  north  as  the  settled  parts  of  the  territory. 
At  the  neighborhood  of  Dubuque,  it  extends  six  or  seven 
miles.  Much  of  the  land  near  the  river  is  unsuited  to  culti- 
vation, in  consequence  of  this  unevenness  of  surface.  There 
is,  however,  much  excellent  farming  land  in  this  and  in  Clay- 
ton county.  Some  of  the  Turkey  River  country  is  very 
handsome. 

Van  Buren  county,  situated  on  the  Des  Moines  River, 
back  of  Lee,  is  the  best  interior  county,  and  by  many  is  con- 
sidered the  best  county  in  the  Territory.  It  is  the  most 
populous.  The  lands  generally  upon  this  river  have  been 
already  mentioned  as  exceedingly  fertile  and  beautiful. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  good  coal  here.  Keosaqua  is  the 
capital  town,  situated  in  the  bend,  which  the  Lidians  call 
Keosaqua  (or  Kebesaqua,  as  Gen.  Pike  and  Major  Marston 
have  it)  peninsula.*  There  are  several  other  towns  in  this 
county,  populous  and  thriving.  The  other  interior  counties 
of  the  old  purchase,  Henry,  Jefferson,  Washington,  Johnson, 
Cedar,  Linn,  Jones  and  Delaware,  are  of  as  good  land  as  the 
front  tier.  Linn  county  has  been  said  to  excel  all  the  others, 
in  the  more  just  proportion  of  timber  and  prairie  land,  and  in 
the  greater  depth  of  its  soil.  These  counties  contain  no  towns 
of  consequence,  with  the  exception  of  Iowa  city,  the  seat  of 
government  for  the  Territory,  which  is  situated  in  Johnson 
county.  This  young  city  is  situated  on  a  very  beautiful 
plateau  on  the  left  bank  of  Iowa  River,  about  eighty  miles 
from  its  mouth,  by  the  windings  of  the  stream,  though  not 
much  more  than  half  that  distance  in  a  direct  line,  and  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  that  river.     Small  steamboats  go  up  to 

*  The  writer  considers  the  true  name  to  be  Kebe-saki,  or  Kebe-osaki, 
the  last  part  of  the  word  meaning  island,  and  the  same  which  is  used  to 
designate  the  tribe,  commonly  called  Sac. 


TOPOGRAPHY.  119 

the  city  two  or  llirce  times  a  year.  There  is  here  a  fine 
capitol,  erected  at  a  cost  of  over  $100,000,  and  paid  for  by 
the  sales  of  lots  on  the  section  given  by  Congress  for  that 
purpose. 

In  JefTerson  county  is  the  town  of  Fairfield,  in  which  the 
Land  Ollice  for  the  Dcs  Moines  Land  District  is  situated. 
In  Henry  county  is  Mount  Pleasant,  a  handsome  town  upon 
the  prairie.  Tliis  county  lias  also  several  villages,  among 
which  is  Salem,  a  settlement  of  Quakers. 

The  other  counties,  formed  out  of  the  late  Indian  purchase, 
Davis,  Appenoose,  Wapello,  Monroe,  Keokuk,  Mahaska, 
Poweshcck,  Tama,  Marion,  Lucas,  Polk,  Dallas,  Jasper, 
Wayne,  Clark,  Story,  are  of  a  character  similar  to  those  of 
the  older  settlements.  The  soil  throus^hout  has  but  little 
variation  ;  and  with  the  exception  of  a  few  swamps,  and  a 
very  small  number  of  sand  spots  of  little  extent,  the  whole 
country  is  susceptible,  by  the  mere  upturning  of  the  plough, 
with  the  most  careless  after-tillage,  of  being  made  one  garden. 

Wapello,  Mahaska,  Marion  and  Polk,  are  situated  upon 
the  Des  ]\Ioincs  River,  which  is  already  described  as  contain- 
ing some  of  the  most  fertile  and  beautiful  land  in  Iowa. 

Wisconsin  is  divided  into  twenty-four  counties.  Upon 
the  lake  are  Racine,  Milwakie,  Washington,  Sheboyegan, 
Manitowoc,  and  Brown.  Grant,  Crawford  and  St.  Croix,  are 
on  the  Missisippi.  The  other  counties  are  Iowa,  Green, 
Walworth,  Rock,  Jetrerson,  Dane,  Dodge,  Portage,  Fond  du 
Lac,  Marquette,  Calumet,  Winnebago,  Sauk,  Richland  and 
La  Pointe. 

Grant  county  is  in  the  southwest  comer  of  the  Territory, 
situated  in  a  bend  of  the  Missisippi,  which  washes  it  west 
and  south,  and  having  the  Wisconsin  on  the  north,  it  is 
bounded  by  a  water  line  throughout,  except  upon  the  eastern 
side.     Lying  within  the  mineral  tract,  it  lias  a  very  valuable 


120  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

deposit  ol  lead  ore.  The  soil  is  excellent ;  but  by  reason 
of  the  broken  and  uneven  surface,  some  portions  of  it  are  not 
well  adapted  to  the  plough.  It  has  a  fair  proportion  of  tim- 
ber, and  is  a  well-watered  tract.  Beside  the  two  principal 
boundarv  rivers,  it  has  the  Grant,  the  Platte,  consisting  of 
two  principal  branches,  one  of  which  is  called  Little  Platte, 
unitincr  about  twenty-hve  miles  from  the  mouth,  and  other 
smaller  streams  passing  through  it.  Cassville  is  a  small 
village  on  the  3Iissisippi.  It  has  the  advantage  of  a  hand- 
some site,  and  will  probably  increase  in  importance  as  the 
country  to  the  north  and  east  shall  become  settled.  Lead 
ore  has  been  found  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  lands  behind  it 
present  external  indications  of  containing  mineral. 

Platteville  is  a  more  populous  town,  and  there  is  a  good 
business  done  at  it.  It  has  a  pleasant  interior  situation  near 
the  Little  Platte  River,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  mineral 
and  aOTicultural  res-ion.  The  Platte  and  Grant  Rivers  afford 
good  water  power,  but  are  navigable  for  a  short  distance 
only.  In  mere  business,  Platteville  has  a  rival  in  Potosi. 
In  other  particulars,  especially  in  what  is  pleasing  to  the  eye, 
Platteville  has  the  advantage.  Potosi  has  a  larger  popula- 
tion, is  near  the  Missisippi,  and  the  centre  of  ver}-  profitable 
"  dio-crinffs."  There  is,  in  all  the  mining  towTis,  a  mixed 
population,  the  miners,  as  well  as  others  who  follow  them  for 
supplying  their  wants,  and  for  making  a  subsistence  from 
them  in  various  ways,  being  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
some  of  the  last  class  especially,  of  rather  a  "  miscellaneous 
character."  Among  the  miners  there  is  a  good  portion  of 
siurewd  men,  true  men  and  enterprising.  Potosi  is  strongly 
marked  with  the  characteristics  of  a  mining  town.  Lancas- 
ter, a  small  interior  village,  on  an  elevated  ridge,  is  the  county 
seat.     It  has  around  it  an  inviting  agricultural  country. 

The  broken  lands  of  Grant  coimty  are,  for  the  most  part, 


TOPOGRAPHY.  121 

on  the  borders  of  the  Platte  and  Grant  Rivers,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Missisippi.  Ahnost  every  small  stream  also 
has  its  romantic  bluffs  and  dales,  but  the  county  notwith 
standing  has  advantages,  as  an  agricultural  and  grazing  coun- 
try, in  soil,  timber  and  water,  and  in  its  salubrity  and  its  river 
borders ;  apart  from  its  exhaustless  stores  of  lead  ore,  which 
are  from  time  to  time  laid  bare  by  tlie  enterprise  and  industry 
of  the  miners. 

The  country  generally  west  of  the  Pectanon  (so  called  by 
Long),  or,  as  conmionly  called  by  the  inhabitants,  the  Peka- 
tonica,  and  south  of  the  Wisconsin,  is  rather  broken,  but 
contains  many  spots  highly  suited  to  agriculture.  The  coun- 
try, how  ever,as  a  whole,  as  well  as  that  west  of  the  Missi- 
sippi, is  admirably  adapted  to  grazing.  Grant  county,  just 
described,  is  included  in  this  tract.  A  portion  of  Iowa 
county  is  also  within  it.  This  is  an  extensive  count)', 
bounded  by  the  IlHnois  State  line  and  by  the  Wisconsin 
River,  for  its  south  and  north  boundaries,  and  is  one  of  great 
capabihties.  It  has  an  abundemce  of  lead  mineral,  and  coj>- 
per  ore  also  has  been  found  and  worked.  The  eastern  part 
of  the  county  is  a  fine  agricultural  tract ;  and  the  whole 
countr}^  east  of  Pekatonica,  to  the  lake,  may  be  said  to  be  a 
most  delightful  and  fertile  farming  region.  Mineral  Point  is 
the  county  seat  of  Iowa  county.  It  has  also  the  Land  Office 
for  the  District,  and  is  a  point  of  much  business,  rendered  so 
by  the  large  number  of  miners  engaged  in  the  vicinity,  by 
the  smelling  of  the  mineral,  *Scc. 

Iowa  county  contains  a  large  proportion  of  prairie,  extend- 
ing, in  its  southern  part,  from  Green  county  on  the  east, 
westw^ardly  to  Grant  county,  and  in  its  northern  part  from 
Dane  county  on  the  east,  along  a  beautiful  dividing  ridge, 
which  extends  westAvardlv  into  Grant.  On  this  ridge  runs 
the  United  Stales  road  leading   from  Fort   Wiimebago   to 


122  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Prairie  Du  Chien.  The  timber  in  Iowa  county  is  upon  the 
borders  of  the  Wisconsin  and  Pekatonica  Rivers,  and  in 
beautiful  groves  scattered  here  and  there  upon  the  surface 
of  the  prairie.  In  all  the  prairie  country  it  is  expected  that 
the  growth  of  timber  will  be  increased  as  settlement  pro- 
gresses, by  the  exclusion  of  fires,  and  the  breaking  up  of 
the  prairie  sod.  The  lead  ore  region  of  this  county  extends 
from  the  Illinois  line  north  to  the  Blue  Mounds,  36  miles, 
underlying  the  w^hole  county,  longitudinally.  But  a  small 
part  of  its  mineral  lands  has  yet  been  opened  by  the  spade 
of  the  miner,  and  it  will  be  a  long  time  probably  before  the 
richest  lodes  will  be  reached.  Most  of  the  lead  taken  in  this 
county  is  carried  to  Galena  for  shipment  to  m.arket. 

The  lead  region  extends  easterly  to  the  waters  of  Sugar 
River,  a  branch  of  Pekatonica,  about  seventy-six  miles,  geo- 
metrically, east  of  the  Missisippi  at  Cassville.  With  the 
change  in  the  geological  character  of  the  country,  there  is 
also  a  modification  of  its  topographical  features  and  scenery. 
The  surface  becomes  more  even,  and  gradually  assumes  the 
appearance  more  decidedly  of  a  plain  country. 

In  the  southeastern  part  of  Wisconsin,  the  proportion  of 
prairie  country  is  increased,  though  about  the  upper  banks  of 
Rock  River,  Fox  of  Illinois,  and  Maple,  all  of  which  head 
within  it,  as  well  as  upon  the  small  streams,  there  is  a  sufl^i- 
ciency  of  good  timber.  Racine,  the  southeastern  county, 
bounded  by  tlie  Illinois  State  line  and  the  lake,  contains  a 
large  portion  of  beautiful  and  rich  prairie  with  a  gently  un- 
dulating surface,  which  is  now  dotted  with  numerous  thriv- 
ing farms.  It  has  two  prosperous  and  growing  villages, 
Racine  and  Southport,  the  former  containing  more  than  2000 
inhabitants,  the  latter  nearly  that  number.  The  population 
is  stated  upon  conjecture,  without  precise  information,  as 
the  growth  of  these  lake  towns   has  been  so  rapid,  that  the 


TOPOGRAPH V.  123 

ascertained  population  of  one  year  may  be  scarcely  more  tlian 
a  moiety  of  the  succecdino;.  They  are  the  points  of  landing 
for  the  great  mass  of  emigration  by  the  northern  route,  and 
the  quarters,  consequently,  of  a  temporary  and  fluctuating 
population,  which  drifts  thence  over  tlie  whole  surface  of  the 
territory,  and  into  Illinois  and  Iowa.  The  business  of  these 
towns  depends  upon  the  prosperity  and  increase  of  the  agri- 
cultural popidation  in  the  interior. 

Milwaukie  county  is  washed  on  its  entire  eastern  boundary 
by  Lake  Michigan,  on  which,  at  the  mouth  of  Milwaukie 
River,  is  situated  the  city  of  Milwaukie,  which  has  become 
in  about  ten  years  from  its  foundation  one  of  the  first  class 
of  towns  in  the  west.  The  population  of  the  city  exceeds 
8000,  or  as  some  suppose,  is  not  much  less  than  10,000. 
The  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  country  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  in  1834  there  were  but  two  or  three  build- 
ings on  the  tract  which  is  now  covered  by  the  dwellings  of 
its  numerous  residents.  The  country  contains  a  wide  tract 
of  timber  land,  which  lies  immediately  back  of  the  city,  and 
is  now  well  peopled  with  hardy  and  industrious  farmers  from 
the  northern  States.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  undulat- 
ing and  its  soil  very  good.  The  eastern  portion  of  this  ter- 
ritory has  a  great  advantage  in  its  connection,  by  the  Lakes, 
with  the  eastern  markets,  and  being  in  all  the  essential  attri- 
butes of  soil,  limber,  and  water,  not  inferior  to  the  country 
west  of  the  Missisippi,  it  is  a  most  desirable  country  for 
emigrants. 

Proceeding  north  to  Green  Bay,  the  coimtry  is  more  tim- 
bered, and  undergoes  a  radical  change  of  soil.  Inthcneigli- 
borhood  of  the  Bay  the  soil  is  sandy,  and  following  the  river 
to  Fort  Winnebago,  at  the  Portage,  the  country  is  hilly  and 
well  timbered.  Between  Green  Bay  and  the  Lake  is  a 
northern  vegetation  of  white  pine,  spruce,  birch,  &c.     Near 


124  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Green  Bay  are  large  marshes  of  wild  rice  and  cranberries, 
and  near  the  Wisconsin  River,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Territory,  are  extensive  swamps,  having  an  abundant  growth 
of  the  latter  plant. 

The  town  of  Navarino  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Bay, 
and  Green  Bay  is  the  name  of  a  town  on  the  lower  shore 
near  its  mouth. 

On  the  north  bank  of  the  Wisconsin  River,  from  the 
Great  Bend  near  the  Fox  portage,  running  westwardly  nearly 
to  the  Kickapoo,  is  a  range  of  high,  abrupt,  thickly-wooded 
mountains,  a  rare  feature  in  the  topography  of  this  country. 

The  interior  countries,  south  of  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin, 
cover  a  fine  body  of  farming  lands. 

Rock  county  has  a  very  advantageous   situation  on  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Rock  River,  and  has  the  requisites  de- 
sired by  the  farmer  of   being  well  watered  and  timbered. 
Among  the  interesting  and  inviting  features  of  the  interior 
counties  of  Wisconsin  are  the  small  lakes  found  in  Dane, 
Jefferson,  Fond  du  Lac,  and  other  counties.     The  shores  of 
these  beautiful  reservoirs   of   limpid  waters   furnish   many 
most  delightful  sites  for  farms.     They  are  mostly  found  in 
the  interior  counties  immediately   south  of  the  Wisconsin 
River  and  east  of  Sugar  River,  a  branch  of  the  Pekatonica. 
In  all  of  them  arc  found   excellent  fisli,  the  pike  of  a  large 
size,  catfish,  black  bass,  yellow  perch,  mullet,  &:c.     A  group 
of  these  lakes,  four  in   number,  stretch  from   northwest  to 
southeast  in  Dane  county,  having  an   outlet  in  a  branch  of 
Rock  River.     This  group  is  called  The  Four  Lakes.     Madi- 
son, the  present  capital  of  Wisconsin,  and  seat  of  justice  of 
Dane  county,  is  seated  on  a  narrow   isthmus,  between  the 
third  and  fourth  lakes  north.     Proceeding  northward  from  tlio 
southern  tier  of  interior  counties,  the  timber  becomes  more 
abundant. 


TOPOGRAPHY.  125 

The  Blue  Mounds,  in  tlic  northeastern  part  of  Iowa  County, 
are  remarkable  elevations,  liie  greatest  height  being  1,001 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  Wisconsin  at  Arena,  in  the  same 
longitude,  as  measured  by  Dr.  Locke.  They  are  about  twelve 
miles  from  the  river,  soutli ;  and  thirty  from  Madison,  nearly 
west. 

St.  Croix  is  a  new  county,  west  of  Crawford,  on  the  St. 
Croix  and  Missisippi  Rivers.  Though  far  to  the  north  it  is 
finely  situated  upon  the  Missisippi,  and  has  very  superior  ad- 
vantages for  the  lumber  trade.  It  has  great  forest  wealth, 
containing  probably  the  best  pine  region  in  the  United  States 
next  to  the  lumber  tracts  of  Maine.  With  this  valuable  ar- 
ticle of  trade,  and  with  very  superior  facilities  for  getting  it 
to  a  most  extensive  and  rapidly  increasing  market — there 
must  of  necessity  be  a  very  large  business  done  in  this  di- 
rection. It  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  that  this  portion  of 
the  district  also  contains  large  deposits  of  copper  ore.  The 
eastern  boundary  of  this  county  is  the  Chippeway  River,  and 
a  line  thence  running  northeasterly  to  the  Michigan  state  line, 
and  with  that  line  to  the  Lake  :  its  western  is  coterminous 
with  the  Territory  ;  its  northern  with  the  United  States,  ex- 
tending from  about  44 J°  to  49^.  Such  was  its  boundary  till 
1845,  when  it  was  divided,  and  La  Pointe,  a  new  county, 
made  in  1845,  lias  been  taken  from  that  portion  of  St.  Croix 
which  was  north  of  the  mouth  of  Muddy  River  and  Yellow 
Lake. 

Crawford  county  is  also  of  great  extent ;  including  nearly 
the  whole  space  northerly  from  the  Wisconsin  to  the  Michigan 
state  line.  This  county  has  the  Wisconsin  on  the  south,  the 
Missisippi  southwest,  the  Ciiippeway  on  the  west.  It  is 
watered  also  by  the  Bad  Axe,  Black  River,  Prairie  La  Crosse, 
and  several  other  streams.  Its  breadtli  from  east  to  west  is 
by  no  means  proportioned  to  its  great  north  and  south  stretch. 


126  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

It  has  a  variety  of  soil  and  a  diversified  scenery.  There  is 
an  extensive  bottom  between  the  two  main  rivers,  on  which 
is  situated  the  old  French  town  of  Prairie  Du  Chien,  tliree 
or  four  miles  from  the  Wisconsin,  a  scattered  settlement, 
rather  than  a  town.  It  had  been  long  occupied  by  the  French, 
having  been  settled  about  the  period  of  the  revolution,  and 
was  a  considerable  trading  post,  and  a  rendezvous  for  the 
Indians  and  British.  In  1814  the  United  States  established 
a  garrison  there,  and  still  maintain  it.  Within  a  year  or  two 
a  deposit  of  copper  ore  has  been  found  in  this  vicinity.  On 
the  Wisconsin  is  an  abundance  and  variety  of  valuable  timber, 
especially  white  pine.  This  is  perhaps  to  be  considered  as 
the  southern  limit  of  the  pine  region,  though  scattered  groves 
of  it  are  found  further  south. 

Since  the  purchase  made  of  the  Chippewas  in  1842,  of  a 
tract  of  land  which  covered  the  northwestern  peninsula  of 
Michigan,  six  counties  have  been  laid  off  therein,  by  that 
state.  They  are  Michilimackinac,  Schoolcraft,  Chippew^ay, 
Marquette,  Ontonagon,  and  Houghton.  There  arc  few  settlers 
on  the  tract.  The  eastern  point  of  the  peninsula  is  a  spot  of 
peculiar  beauty.  Owing  to  its  latitude,  and  to  its  vicinity  to 
the  lakes,  the  united  influence  of  temperature  and  exposure 
to  the  winds,  it  is  not  to  be  desired  for  agriculture.  A  great 
portion  of  the  tract  is,  no  doubt,  rich  in  copper  ore,  and  other 
mineral  wealth. 

There  are  thirty-seven  counties  of  Illinois  wholly  or  par- 
tially within  the  district  treated  of  in  these  notes.  Joe  Davies, 
Carroll,  Whiteside,  Rock  Island,  Henderson,  Mercer,  Han- 
cock, Adams,  Pike,  Calhoun,  are  on  the  Missisippi  River. 
The  two  last  are  on  the  Illinois  also,  being  bounded  by  both 
rivers.  Whiteside  and  Rock  Island  are  on  Rock  River  also, 
as  well  as  on  the  Missisippi.  Lake  and  Cook  are  on  the 
Lake  Michigan.    Brown,  Fulton,  La  Salle,  Marshall,  Peoria, 


TOPOGRAPHY.  127 

Putnam  and  Schuyler  arc  also  on  the  Illinois  river  beside 
Calhoun  and  Pike  above-named;  Rock  Island,  Whiteside, 
Ogle,  and  Winnebago,  on  Rock  River. 

Joe  Davies  is  a  mineral  district.  The  lands  about  Galena, 
Fairplay,  and  Elizabeth,  and  in  some  other  "diggings"  in  this 
county,  are  very  rich  in  mineral.  The  county  has  a  good 
soil,  but  is  not  of  great  value  as  an  agricultural  country,  by 
reason  of  the  broken  nature  of  its  surface.  It  is  drained  by 
Sinsinewa,  Fever,  Small  Pox,  and  Apple  Rivers.  The  country 
at  the  head  of  Apple  River  is  a  very  beautiful  and  fertile 
district,  and  contains  some  handsome  farms.  The  population 
of  the  county  has  greatly  increased  since  the  census  of  1840. 
It  w^as  then  (3, 1 60.  It  now  probably  exceeds  1 0,000,  of  which 
nearly  half  is  at  Galena. 

Tlie  first  selllements  were  made  in  Galena,  in  1828.  This 
place  is  situated  about  three  miles  from  the  Missisippi,  upon 
a  little  stream  commonly  called  Fever  River,  or  otherwise 
Bean  River,  being  by  the  winding  of  the  stream,  six  miles 
from  its  mouth.  The  river  was  first  named  by  the  French, 
and  it  is  now  disputed  whether  the  appellation  bestowed  by 
them  was  F6ve,  or  Fievre.  The  circumstance  that  a  small 
stream  next  below,  and  but  a  small  distnnce  from  it,  is  called 
Small-Pox,  and  that  the  first  place  has  had  its  share  of  the 
fevers  of  the  country,  may  seem  to  favor  the  idea  of  the 
Fever.  The  pulse  may  be  consulted  to  decide  the  important 
question. 

By  a  law  of  Congress  of  February  5th,  1829,  the  Surveyor 
of  the  Public  Lands  was  directed  to  lay  out  a  town  on  Bean 
River,  in  Illinois,  at  and  including  Galena. 

Tlie  town  increased  with  a  great  rapidity.  Miners  pressed 
in  from  all  quarters,  and  it  became  at  once  the  metropolis  of 
the  lead  diggings.  Such  it  is,  and  will,  no  doubt,  continue. 
It  is  most  singularly  situated,  on  the  side  of  a  steep  bluff. 


128  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

and  consists  of  two  narrow  streets  running  parallel  with  the 
river ;  and,  though  they  are  placed  as  near  as  possible,  the 
foundations  of  the  houses  upon  the  second  are  upon  a  level 
with  the  roofs  of  the  first.  Such  is  the  business  in  this  little 
nook,  that  the  lower  street  always  presents  the  appearance  of 
a  large  and  thronged  city.  Scarcely  any  street,  in  any  city, 
has  more  of  a  crowd  and  bustle.  Lately,  some  houses  have 
been  built  on  the  opposite,  or  left,  bank  of  the  river,  wdiich 
is  a  better  site  than  the  orio;inal  crround. 

The  low^er  part  of  Joe  Davis,  and  the  adjoining  part  of 
Carroll,  is  a  very  sterile  tract,  quite  unusual  in  this  country, 
except  in  a  few  points  where  the  sand  has  been  heaped  up  by 
the  streams  or  the  winds,  or  by  the  joint  action  of  both. 
One  of  these  causes,  probably  the  river,  was  the  agent  in  piling 
up  sand  here  for  several  miles  in  extent,  where,  perhaps, 
there  was  formerly  a  deflexion  of  the  river,  or  an  expansion 
into  a  lake.  Carroll  county  may  not  be  ranked  among  the 
good  agricultural  counties,  and  is  without  minerals.  Pro- 
ceeding down  the  river,  the  land  improves  in  quality. 
Whiteside  has  more  good  land.  In  this  county  Fulton  has  a 
good  situation  on  the  river,  and  a  pleasant  site.  The  exor- 
bitant ferry  charges  have  some  influence  in  deciding  against 
the  prosperity  of  so  small  a  village.  Albany,  also  on  the 
river,  is  a  small  village,  with  a  site  rather  inferior  to  the 
former  place. 

Rock  Island  is  at  the  mouth  of  Rock  River,  extending  a 
long  distance  on  the  Missisippi,  in  a  narrow  strip,  having  the 
little  villages  of  Cordova,  Port  Byron,  Hampton  and  Moline, 
and  the  town  of  Rock  Island  on  the  river.  The  latter  is  a 
place  of  some  business,  has  1000  or  1,200  inhabitants,  and  oc- 
cupies nearly  the  site  of  the  old  Sauk  village,  called  Senisepo 
Kebesaukie,  Rock  River  Peninsula.  It  is  at  the  foot  of  the 
Upper,  or  Rock  River,  Rapids,  opposite  Davenport,  known 


TOPOGUAI'HY.  129 

to  all  who  pass  ihc  river  as  the  most  attractive  in  natural 
scenery  of  any  place  within  the  usual  route  of  the  boats. 

Mercer,  Henderson,  and  Hancock,  have  some  good  land, 
but  a  large  amount  of  waste  upon  the  river,  and  an  undue 
proportion  of  prairie.  Tho  towns  of  New  Boston,  Oquawka, 
Navoo  (the  city  of  llic  .Alornions),  and  Warsaw,  are  upon  the 
river  in  these  counties,  the  two  last  in  Hancock,  as  also 
Carthage,  the  county  seat,  back  from  the  River.  Hancock  is 
a  populous  and  important  county.  Warsaw,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Des  Moines,  has  a  commanding  position.  It  is 
partly  on  the  bluff  and  partly  below.  It  will  ])e  the  depot 
for  a  considerable  back  country  in  Illinois,  and  for  the  pro- 
ducts descending  the  Des  Moines,  which  last  will  be  of  great 
amount  when  the  State  of  Iowa  shall  become  more  popu- 
lous, and  the  navigation  of  the  river  shall  be  improved.  It  is 
also  the  point  where,  in  low  water,  the  steamboats  discharge 
their  cargoes,  which  they  are  unable  to  transport  over  the 
rapids,  the  town  being  a  short  distance  below.  From  here, 
the  keel-boats,  laden  with  goods,  arc  towed  up  by  a  class  of 
light  draught  steamers. 

Adams,  the  next  county  on  the  river,  is,  in  territory  and 
population,  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  State.  Quincy 
is  the  largest  and  best  built  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
between  Alton  and  Galena,  with  the  exception  of  the  city  of 
the  '*  saints,"  so  called  as  ''  lucus  a  non  luccndo."  Quincy 
is  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  above  St.  Louis,  and  over  one 
hundred  and  twenty  above  the  moulli  of  the  Illinois  River. 
It  is  the  depot  for  the  trade  of  a  large  country  north  of  tlic 
river,  and  a  populous,  handsome,  and  flourisliing  town,  with 
the  Land  Oflice  for  the  district. 

Below  Adams,  a  large  tract,  extending  from  river  to  river, 
forty  miles  or  more  in  average  breadth,  and  from  north  to 
soutli  about  the  same,  is  formed  into  the  county  of  Pike.     It 


130  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

is  the  fourth  county,  in  population,  of  Northern  lUinois,  or, 
rather,  it  is  one  of  the  four  highest ;  for,  without  a  late  census, 
the  numbers  are  only  matter  of  estimate,  and  there  is  not,  pro- 
bably, a  great  difference  in  amount  between  the  four. 
Adams,  Cook,  and  Fulton,  may  be  supposed  to  contain  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  thousand  each,  and  Pike  sixteen  or  seven- 
teen thousand. 

Cook,  Adams,  Fulton,  Pike  and  La  Salle,  are  among  the 
most  populous  and  valuable  counties  in  the  State.  Cook  is 
on  the  lake.  By  the  census  of  1840,  there  were  10,201 
inhabitants.  Since  that  time,  about  4000  have  been  added 
to  the  town  of  Chicago,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  county 
now  contains  18  or  20  thousand.  Chicago  has  now  about 
10,000.  It  is  the  foremost  town  in  the  State  in  popiilation 
and  business.  It  is  the  principal  port  on  the  lake  for  north- 
em  Illinois  and  Iowa.  Here  great  quantities  of  wheat  and 
other  produce  are  shipped,  partly  brought  across  the  country 
from  Iowa,  for  the  New  York  market  ;  and  most  of  the  pas- 
sengers by  way  of  the  lakes,  are  landed  at  this  place  and  at 
Milwakie.     The  Land  Office  for  the  District  is  here. 

La  Salle  is  an  extensive  county  lying  on  both  sides  of 
the  Illinois  River.  It  is  above  the  navigable  waters  of  the 
river.  The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  passes  through  it, 
and  it  is  thereby  rendered  accessible  both  from  the  lake  and 
the  Missisippi.  It  has  probably  exceeding  15,000  inhabit- 
ants. 

Ottawa  is  the  county  seat,  situated  at  the  junction  of  Fox 
River,  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  a  few  miles  above  the 
lower  rapids. 

Bureau,  Kendall,  and  Peoria,  follow,  in  descending  the 
Illinois.  Peoria  is  important  for  its  population  and  ex- 
tent ;  its  fertility,  and  resources,  and  business  ;  and  in  the 
beauty  of  its  situation  is   not  exceeded  by  any  portion  of 


TOPOGRAPHY.  131 

country  on  the  banks  of  tliis  river,  which  drew  so  much  the 
admiration  of  travellers  to  the  country  in  former  times. 
The  town  of  Peoria  is  situated  on  the  river,  at  or  near  the 
site  of  old  Fort  Crevecoeur,  at  the  foot  of  the  Lake  Peoria, 
a  little  more  than  200  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
This  fort  was  built  by  La  Sale,  as  a  point  d'appui  for  prose- 
cuting the  discovery  of  the  Missisippi.  It  is  the  county 
scat,  and  a  place  of  much  business. 

Fulton,  Schuyler,  Brown  and  Pike,  the  last  extending 
to  the  Missisippi,  and  already  described,  cover  the  most 
valuable,  fertile,  and  beautiful  tract,  in  the  State,  except 
some  part  of  the  land  upon  Rock  River  :  in  two  important 
conditions  having  advantage  over  the  last,  being  some  two  to 
three  degrees  farther  south,  which  gives  them  a  more  propi- 
tious climate  for  agriculture,  and  a  more  genial ;  and  also 
liaving  an  open  navigation  generally  through  the  year,  while 
Rock  River  is  locked  up  through  the  winter,  and  has  but  a 
difficult  navigation  at  any  time.  Fulton  is  in  the  first  class 
of  counties  for  population.  Spoon  River  waters  this  county, 
and  enters  the  Illinois  about  forty  miles  below  Peoria. 

Schuyler  is  below  Fulton  :  not  varying  much  from  it  in 
soil,  in  which  particular  both  are  highly  favored.  Schuyler 
is  less  populous  than  Fulton.  It  has  Crooked  Creek  passing 
nearly  centrally  through  il.  Rushvillc  is  the  county  seat,  a 
place  of  some  business.  Brown  county  is  less  populous  than 
Schuyler.  The  latter  contains  about  10,000  inhabitants,  the 
other,  two-thirds  of  that  number. 

For  some  miles  above  the  point  of  junction,  the  two  rivers 
ap})roach  very  near  together,  and  pursue  an  almost  parallel 
course.  Tlie  narrow  peninsula  is  formed  into  the  county  of 
Calhoun. 

Knox,    Kane,    Warren,    are    populous    interior    counties. 


132  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Knoxville,  Monmouth,  Macomb,  and  other  villages,  are  upon 
this  tract. 

Illinois  presents  in  general  an  agreeable  and  beautiful  suc- 
cession of  grove  and  prairie,  similar  to  the  country  west  of 
the  Missisippi,  varying  slightly  in  two  particulars,  rather  to 
the  disadvantage  of  the  former  ; — the  proportion  of  timber  is 
rather  scanty  in  Illinois,  and  of  consequence  the  prairies 
more  extensive  ; — and  the  soil  is  not  of  so  great  depth  as  on 
the  west  side  of  the  river.  The  prairie  on  both  sides,  how- 
ever, is  extremely  fertile,  and  ver}^  agreeable  to  the  sight. 

This  region,  or  any  portions  of  it,  must  be  seen  to  be 
appreciated.  Much  better  is  a  man's  own  eye  to  convey  a 
faithful  description  to  him,  than  the  tongue  of  another.  The 
quiet  beauty  of  the  prairies,  the  graceful  outline  of  their  sur- 
face, or  the  rich,  mellow,  genial,  quality  of  their  soil,  is  not 
understood  without  inspection ;  nor  does  the  mind  of  one 
only  accustomed  to  the  recesses  of  forest  or  mountain 
scenery,  or  to  the  still  narrower  barricades  of  vision  formed 
by  the  high  and  compact  lines  of  masonry  in  a  city,  take  in 
the  idea  of  a  broad  expanse  of  plain,  stretching  to  the  hori- 
zon on  every  side,  without  tree  or  shrub  ;  unfenced ;  and 
still,  after  miles  of  travel,  presenting  a  similar  scene,  limited 
only  by  a  similar  horizon  ;  adorned  only  with  a  variegated 
carpet  of  luxuriant  flowers  ;  relieved  only  by  the  graceful 
undulations  of  its  surface. 

The  countiy  about  Yellow  Creek,  a  small  tributaiy  of 
Pectanon,  presents  a  very  beautiful  specimen  of  prairie 
scenery.  As  you  approach  it  from  Galena,  it  rather  sud- 
denly appears  to  view  in  coming  over  a  ridge,  and  the  eye 
is  astonished  with  the  unexpected  and  agreeable  presentation. 
Near  the  head  of  Little  Rock  River  is  another  beautiful  but 
different  view.  Yellow  Creek  is  in  tlic  state  of  nature. 
Little  Rock  River  is  a  handsome   prairie   covered  with  a 


TOPOGRAPJIY.  133 

cluster  of  the  neatest  looking  farms,  with  handsome  fences 
and  liandsomer  buildings,  altogether  presenting  the  most 
agreeable  picture  of  agricultural  life,  ever  seen  by  the  writer. 
Such  are  some  of  the  topographical  characteristics  of  the 
branches  of  Rock  River.  This  country  has  been  highly 
commended,  but  the  reality  will  not  be  found  to  be  exa<'-cTc- 
rated  by  the  description  ; — the  original  cannot  be  heightened 
in  the  picture. 

Ogle,  Winnebago  and  Whiteside,  and  Rock  Island,  are 
counties  upon  Rock  River.  They  contain  some  of  the  best 
specimens  of  western  lands  and  western  farms.  Great  quan- 
tities of  wheat  are  raised  here  and  in  the  whole  Rock  River 
country. 

Northern  Missouri  has  forty-three  counties.  In  its  other 
political  organization  it  is  similar  to  Iowa. 

The  counties  are  :  St.  Charles,  Lincoln,  Pike,  Ralls,  Ma- 
rion, Lewis,  and  Clarke,  on  the  Missisippi ;  Warren,  Mont- 
gomery, Calloway,  Boone,  Howard,  Chariton,  Carroll,  Ray, 
Clay,  Platte,  Buchanan,  Andrew,  Holt,  Allen,  on  the  Mis- 
souri ;  and  Audrain,  Caldwell,  Davies,  Clinton,  Livingston, 
Macon,  Randolph,  Monroe,  Shelby,  Knox,  Scotland,  Schuyler, 
Adair,  Linn,  Highland,  Putnam,  Mercer,  Grundy,  Harrison, 
(lentry,  De  Kalb,  Nodoway,  between  the  rivers  and  the  north 
line  of  the  state. 

Northern  Missouri  presents  no  very  striking  change  in  its 
geology  or  in  the  essential  features  of  its  physical  geography 
from  the  characteristic  formation  and  internal  structure,  or  from 
the  superficial  aspect,  of  the  country,  that  lias  been  described. 
It  is  a  limestome  country,  and  a  plain.  The  principal  points  of 
difference  arc  that  in  the  eastern  portion  the  proportion  of  prairie 
is  rather  less,  and  the  soil  much  thiinier.  The  subsoil  is  similar. 
Springs  are  not  so  abundant.  The  larger  proj)ortion  of  limber 
is  an  improvement  in  point  of  scenery.     Proceedmg  west  and 


134  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST 

south  these  differences  diminish  ;  and  on  following  the  Mis- 
souri the  land  is  perhaps  equal  to  the  best  on  the  Missisippi. 
The  land  first  described  is  that  portion  east  of  the  ridge  which 
divides  the  waters  of  the  Missisippi  from  the  tributaries  of 
the  Missouri.  It  is  about  one  degree  in  width  between  the 
ridge  and  the  Missisippi,  and  extending  from  the  Missouri 
River  to  the  north  line  of  the  state,  a  little  less  than  two  de- 
grees. The  four  main  branches  of  the  Chariton,  and  the 
eight  or  ten  of  the  Grand  River,  pouring  down  their  streams 
in  nearly  parallel  courses,  from  north  to  south,  and  in  very 
close  contiguity,  the  whole  dozen  or  fourteen  streams  being 
within  the  range  of  a  degree  and  a  half,  or  about  a  hundred 
miles,  forms  a  peculiar  feature  in  the  topography  no  less  than 
in  the  hydrographic  character  and  agricultural  capacities  of 
this  region.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  such  a  country  pos- 
sesses fine  farming  lands :  and  beyond  the  Grand  River 
westerly  to  the  Missouri,  particularly  the  Platte  valley,  is 
equal  to  any  other,  and  presents  strong  allurements  to  emi- 
grants. 

A  great  difference  in  the  social  condition  of  this  portion  of 
the  tract  exists,  in  the  institution  of  slavery  :  and  a  conse- 
quent difference  is  produced  in  the  industrial  pursuits,  which 
everywhere  distinguishes  free  from  slave  labor.  This  is 
the    only  portion  touched   by   our  notes   where   slavery  is 

allowed. 

St.  Charles'  county  lies  between  the  Missisippi  and  the 
Missouri,  extending  back  fifty  miles,  and  being,  in  greatest 
breadth,  about  twenty.  At  the  point  of  confluence  of  the 
two  rivers,  is  a  large  tract  of  low  bottom  land,  extremely 
fertile,  but  subject  to  overflow  at  the  occasional  high  waters 
of  the  river.  The  upland  above  is  rolling,  being  in  nearly 
equal  parts  prairie  and  timber,  watered  by  Cuivre,  Big  Creek, 
McKoy's,  Femme  Osage,  and  Dardenne  :   the  land  pretty 


TOPOGRAPHY.  135 

goo(1,  for  this  portion  of  ihc  country.  The  county  contains 
iron,  coal,  and  it  was  formerly  supposed  that  there  was  copper 
on  the  creek,  which  the  French,  from  that  belief,  named 
Cuivre.  Some  marble  also  exists,  and  potter's  clay  and 
Spanish  brown,  of  good  quality.  The  county  is  divided, 
politically,  into  five  townships,  and  has  several  towns  laid 
out,  the  principal  of  which  is  St.  Charles,  a  very  pretty  town 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Missouri.  The  settlement  of  St. 
Charles  was  commenced  in  17f50,  while  that  country  belonged 
to  Spain  : — and  soon  after  emigrants  began  to  go  there  from 
the  United  States.  Emigration  was  encouraged  by  the 
Spanish  policy  of  granting  lands  to  settlers.  It  is  about 
twenty  miles  from  St.  Louis,  has  increased  very  greatly  in 
twelve  or  fifteen  years  past,  and  now  contains  probably  about 
7,000  inhabitants.  Portage  des  Sioux,  an  old  French  village 
on  the  Missisippi,  contains  about  400  inhabitants. 

Lincoln  county  is  on  the  Missisippi,  next  to  St.  Charles  on 
the  north.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  lands  of  this  county 
are  covered  with  old  Spanish  grants.  The  quality  of  the 
land  generally  is  not  good,  along  the  river  counties  from  the 
Missouri  to  the  north  line  of  the  state.  There  is  a  wide  strip 
of  bottom  land,  part  of  which  is  low  and  subject  to  overflow. 
Along  the  travelled  road  through  this  county,  and  for  some 
distance  north  of  it,  water  is  very  scarce.  Troy  is  the  county 
seat,  and  a  well-built  town,  twelve  miles  from  the  Missi- 
sippi. 

Pike  county,  the  next  on  the  north,  was  originally  mostly 
a  timbered  tract  of  land,  and  has  many  streams  passing 
through  it.  The  largest  of  these  is  Salt  River,  which  runs 
through  the  northern  part  of  the  county.  It  is  said  to  be  of 
good  soil,  compared  to  some  of  the  neighboring  country. 
There  are  several  mills  in  the  county.      Bowling  Green  is 


136  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

the  capital  town.     Elk  Lick  is  medicinal.     Clarksville  and 
Louisiana  are  villages  on  the  Missisippi  within  this  county. 

Ralls  county,  on  the  river,  next  north  of  Pike,  has  some 
branches  of  Salt  River  passing  through  it,  and  Spencer's 
Creek.  It  is  said  also  to  have  good  springs.  Iron,  sulphur, 
and  coal  are  found  within  it.  New  London  is  the  county- 
seat. 

Marion  county  has  a  portion  of  its  lands  drained  by  Salt 
River,  North  and  South  Creeks,  and  North  and  South  Fabius. 
It  has  coal  of  a  good  qualit}^,  and  it  is  said  to  possess  nitre 
in  great  abundance.  There  are  several  salt  springs.  As 
nitre  is  an  element  of  fertility,  the  county  should  be  pro- 
ductive, and  it  is  considered  to  be  so.  There  are  many 
mills  on  the  streams  within  the  county.  Palmyra  is  the 
capital,  a  very  handsome  flourishing  town.  Here  is  the  land 
office  for  the  northern  district  of  this  state.  A  town  is  laid 
out  on  the  river,  called  ]\Iarion  City.  Hannibal,  also  on  the 
river,  is  a  flourishing  town,  and  a  place  of  some  trade.  Salt 
River,  which  has  been  mentioned  as  passing  through 
portions  of  this  county  and  Pike,  is  the  largest  stream  be- 
tween the  Missouri  and  Des  Moines,  flowing  into  the  ]\Iissi- 
sippi. 

Lewis  county  is  north  of  Marion.  It  is  advantageously 
situated  on  the  Missisippi,  being  favored  with  two  or  more 
good  landings.  The  site  of  La  Grange  is  high  and  dry. 
The  county  is  w^atered  by  Wyaconda,  North,  and  Soutli 
Fabius,  and  Fox  creeks.  Monticello,  in  the  centre,  is  the 
county  seat. 

North  of  Lewis,  and  the  most  northerly  river  county  in 
the  State,  is  Clarke.  The  land  of  this,  as  of  the  last 
county,  is  good,  the  soil  becoming  better  toward  the  northern 
part  of  the  State,  than  in  the  counties  lower  down,  near  the 


TOPOGRAPHY.  137 

Missouri.  St.  Francisville  is  the  principal  town,  situated  on 
the  Dcs  Moines  River. 

Warren,  Montgomery,   Callaway,  Boone,  Howard,   Cliari- 

ton,  Carroll,  Ray, Clay,  Platte,  Buchanan,  Andrew, 

Holt,  Allen. 

This  range  of  counties  on  the  Missouri  contain  generally 
a  richer  soil  than  those  on  the  Missisippi.  Howard  county 
is  populous,  well  timbered,  abounding  in  coal,  not  of  the 
best  quality  so  far  as  worked,  and  watered  by  several  small 
creeks.  The  large  streams  called  Chariton  and  Clrand  River 
flow  into  the  Missouri  in  Chariton  and  Carroll  counties. 
Boone  is  the  second  county  in  the  State  in  population,  next 
to  St.  Louis  ;  Howard  is  the  third.  Boone  contains  about, 
or  exceeding,  25,000.  Howard  over  20,000,  estimating  from 
former  rate  of  increase.  Accurate  information  on  this  point, 
at  this  time,  liowever,  is  wanting.  Callaway,  Clay  and  Ray 
are  also  populous  counties.  The  tract  comprising  Howard, 
Boone  and  Callaway  must  be  considered  the  best  in  the 
State,  as  it  is  the  most  populous.  It  is  inhabited  by  farmers, 
whose  industrious  and  skilful  cultivation  of  the  excellent 
land  upon  which  they  have  settled,  has  made  them  easy  in 
circumstances,  and  developed  the  resources  of  a  rich  coun- 
try. Columbia  is  the  county  seat  of  Boone,  centrally 
located.  Fayette  is  the  capital  of  Howard.  Glasgow,  on 
the  river,  in  the  same  county,  is  a  flourishing  town.  The 
southern  portion  of  the  country,  which  is  the  subject  of  these 
notes,  is  passed  with  less  observation  than  that  comprised 
within  the  territories,  as  being  both  belter  known,  and  also 
the  less  interesting  to  many,  because  more  populated,  and 
therefore  olTering  less  inducements  to  settlers.  The  soil  also 
below  the  Des  Moines  is  inferior  to  that  north  of  that  river, 
and  the  country  by  no  means  so  inviting.     Portland,  Frank- 


138  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

lin,  Chariton  on  the  river,  and  Carrol  and  Huntsville  back 
from  it,  are  towns  of  some  importance. 

It  has  already  been  said,  in  treating  of  the  physical  geo- 
graphy of  this  country,  that  it  was  remarkable  for  the  great 
number  of  lakes. 

The  lake  region  extends  from  49°  to  43°,  or  over  six  de- 
grees of  latitude,  and  lies  chiefly  to  the  east  of  the  Tchan- 
sansan  (or  James),  in  98°  of  long.  From  the  head  waters 
of  the  Des  Moines  to  the  country  about  the  heads  of  the 
Missisippi,  they  are  so  numerous  on  the  western  part  of  the 
valley,  that  a  small  addition  to  the  w^ater  surface  would 
make  it  doubtful  whether  it  should  be  called  land  and  lake, 
or  sea  and  island.  South  of  43°  the  remaining  four  degrees 
of  lat.  to  39°,  is  traversed  by  a  vast  number  of  running 
streams  ;  and  these  two  portions  may  be  very  properly  dis- 
tinguished, with  reference  to  these  grand  characteristics,  as 
the  river  country  and  the  lake  country. 

It  will  be  at  once  perceived,  on  stating  this  difference  in 
the  hydrographical  features  of  the  countr}^,  that  there  is  a 
corresponding  difference  in  the  topography  ;  that  the  inclined 
plane  of  the  southern  portion,  reaching  its  summit,  is  changed 
for  the  more  level  plane  ;  and  that  the  northern  part  is  less 
cut  and  scooped  by  the  numberless  deep  ravines  that  mark  the 
lower  country,  serving  it  as  channels  for  draining  it  into  the 
principal  streams. 

The  upper  country  is  described  by  Nicollet  as  very  beau- 
tiful, and  affording  many  fine  farm  sites. 


PART   IV. 


Society. — Laws. — Pursuits. — Life. — Habits. — Health. 

— Public  Lands. 

The  population  of  the  Upper  Missisippi  is  of  various  origin 
and  mixed  character.  Tlic  germ  is  French.  Colonies  from 
France,  and  from  the  French  stock  in  Canada,  were  first 
established  at  several  points  in  this  valley  ;  and,  from  time 
to  time,  the  voyageurs,  or  French  boatmen,  and  the  coureurs 
des  bois,  or  traders,  have  visited  nearly  every  part  of  this 
extensive  region,  some  of  whom  fixed  a  temporary  residence, 
and  others  a  permanent  dwelling,  among  the  native  tribes, 
with  whom  they  became  mingled,  and  frequently  connected 
by  marriage.  The  descendants  of  these  French,  both  of  the 
unmixed  and  the  mixed  blood,  are  numerous  in  the  country, 
and  to  them  many  accessions  from  the  same  race  have  been 
made  in  modern  time  by  emigration  from  Canada.  A  great 
part  of  this  population  is  illiterate  :  though  among  them  are 
many  persons  of  good  education,  fine  intellect,  and  a  refine- 
ment, peculiar  to  their  nation,  beyond  that  of  the  best  of  the 
other  population.  Such  may  be  found  in  the  humble  and 
laborious  occupation  of  digging  in  the  mines.  I  lodged  in 
the  house  of  a  farmer,  one  of  these  people,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Missouri,  opposite  to  St.  Charles,  having  tiie  refinement 
of  the  French  gentleman,  and  a  mind  capable  of  discharging 


140  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST 

the  functions  of  the  highest  offices  in  the  nation.  He  had 
been  acquainted  with  the  country  twenty-five  or  thirty  years, 
and  had  been  to  the  mountains,  as  many  of  these  men  do. 
It  is  not  uncommon  for  young  men  of  weaUhy  famihes  in  St. 
Louis  to  leave  the  refinements  and  luxuries  of  the  city  for  a 
trading  trip  to  the  mountains,  or  to  Santa  Fe.  To  this  initial 
population  have  been  added,  Germans,  English,  Scotch, 
Irish,  and  a  mixture  from  each  of  the  States.  They  are, 
of  course,  of  every  shade  of  character  ;  and  the  traveller 
from  the  denser  and  older  portions  of  the  world  would  fre- 
quently have  his  astonishment  excited,  on  entering  a  very 
rough  log-cabin,  consisting  of  one  room,  with  a  puncheon 
floor  and  mud  chimney,  to  find  a  farmer  of  a  cultivated  mind 
and  manners,*  or  a  lady  who  has  graced  the  gay  and  fashion- 
able parties  of  the  city,  or,  frequently,  her  superior,  whom 
education  has  endowed  with  the  solid  and  shining  accom- 
phshments  of  woman,  and  fitted  for  the  highest  spheres  of 
life.  Among  these  may  be  found,  in  most  free  intercourse 
and  fellowship,  the  differing  and  various  shades  of  character  : 
the  rough  in  extreme,  but  honest  and  worthy;  the  vulgar  and 
clown  of  all  shapes  and  dimensions,  whether  rich  or  poor, 
laboring  or  professional ;  the  counterfeiter  and  horse-thief, 
sitting  side  by  side  with  the  judge  and  senator.  There  is  a 
general  and  equal  association  of  all  persons,  without  regard 
to  character,  condition,  or  circumstances,  making  society  one 
smooth  and  perfect  level.     This  is  not  a  very  agreeable  con- 

*  The  remarks  of  Mr.  Birkbeck,  an  intelligent  and  observing  English- 
man, who  came  to  Illinois  about  the  period  when  it  became  a  state,  made 
in  relation  to  the  western  people  generally  of  that  time,  will,  I  think,  well 
apply  to  the  population  now  inhabiting  this  portion  of  it : — "  Refinement," 
he  says,  "  is  unquestionably  far  more  rare  than  in  our  mature  and  highly- 
cultivated  state  of  society  ;  but  so  is  extreme  vulgarity.  In  every  depart- 
ment of  common  life,  we  here  see  employed  persons  superior  in  habits  and 
education  to  the  same  class  in  England." 


SOCIETY.  141 

dition  ;  but  it  is  the  result  of  circumstances  in  a  new  country, 
where  all  are  poor,  where  all  arc  inconnnoded,  all  seeking 
the  one  thing  needful  (worldly  speaking),  and  seeking  it  in 
the  same  way,  and  surrounded  by  nearly  similar  accidents. 
The  ladies  in  the  towns  are  not  very  easy  under  it,  and  try 
to  remedy  it ;  but  they  go  again  to  the  other  extreme,  and  the 
result  of  the  separation  and  selection  which  is  adopted  in  the 
little  towns  is  infinitely  amusing,  and  a  sufficient  burlesque 
upon  the  more  pretending,  but  generally  equally  oddly- 
assorted,  select  circles  of  the  rich  and  vulgar  in  the  larger 
cities.  This  condition  of  things  is  rather  unfriendly  to  the 
courtesies  and  premeditated  civilities  of  social  intercourse, 
which  are  still  more  hindered  by  that  want  of  acquaintance 
which  is  a  necessary  incident  to  the  sudden  filling  up  of  a 
new  country  with  people  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  There 
is  a  general  prejudice  against  the  New  Englandcr  tluoughout 
the  south  and  west,  which,  among  the  ignorant  here,  amounts 
to  detestation ;  but,  with  this  exception,  the  population  agree 
very  well. 

The  condition  of  the  territories  in  regard  to  schools  is  not 
good,  and  the  standard  of  education  is  low  in  the  whole 
country,  including  that  portion  within  the  States.  The 
standards  of  the  bar,  the  pulpit,  and  in  medical  science,  are 
all  at  a  low  point.  A  young  man  who  has  had  a  schooling 
of  one  year,  and  the  same  amount  of  reading  in  law,  fre- 
quently without  instruction  or  direction,  sometimes  by  an 
apprenticeship,  is  made  a  lawyer ;  such,  at  least,  he  is 
designated  by  legislative  enactment,  and  the  license  of  the 
court,  but  he  is  often,  in  a  duuble  sense,  an  infant  in  law.  I 
believe  a  less  qualification  suffices  for  the  pulpit,  or  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine.  There  are  also  instances  of  a  similar 
want  of  preparation  in  other  pursuits.  Persons  are  found 
engaged  in  trade,  and  employed   in  some  of  the  mechanic 


142  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

arts,  without  having  passed  the  usual  apprenticeship. 
This  condition  of  things  pervades  the  whole  fabric  of 
society.  Judges  have  been  appointed  here  of  less  than 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  of  only  two  or  three  years' 
practice  at  the  bar ;  and  a  judge  of  that  green  age  sits  alone 
on  a  trial  involving  life  or  death  !  In  this  way,  the  laws  are 
administered,  under  the  sanction  of  Congress  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  ! 

There  has  been  a  singular  and  radical  change  of  the  sys- 
tem of  law  by  which  this  country  is  governed.  The  whole 
of  this  territory  was  first  discovered  and  settled  by  French- 
men, and  charters  and  ordinances  for  its  government  were 
granted  and  estabhshed  by  the  king  of  France.  By  this 
means,  the  civil  law  was  extended  over  the  countr}^,  and  be- 
came the  birthright  of  its  inhabitants,  in  the  same  way  and 
by  the  same  means  that  the  common  law  became  tlie  birth- 
right of  the  original  thirteen  States.  The  country  west  of 
the  Missisippi  was  afterwards  possessed  and  governed  by 
Spain,  which,  as  well  as  France,  has  the  civil  law  for  its  code. 
Thus,  in  the  portion  of  country  west  of  the  Missisippi,  the 
civil  law  prevailed  by  a  double  title  ; — both  by  birtli  and 
baptism  it  became  the  law  of  the  land.  It  has  never  been 
formally  abrogated,  yet  it  is  utterly  extinct.  By  the  ordi- 
nance of  1787,  for  the  government  of  the  Northwestern  Ter- 
ritory, tlie  common  law  was  extended  over  that  country ; 
and,  by  subsequent  enactments,  it  has  been  establislied  west 
of  the  river.  Perhaps  it  was  supposed  that  the  system  of  the 
common  law  was  so  entirely  repugnant  to  that  of  the  civil,  as 
to  operate  a  repeal  of  the  latter.  It  is,  however,  more  pro- 
bable that  the  lawyers  and  judges,  who  had  been  practitioners 
of  the  common  law,  did  not  inquire  if  that  might  be  engrafted 
on  the  civil,  but  wholly  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  latter  had 
ever  had  force  there.     However  that  may  be,  whether  by 


LAWS.  143 

some  real  or  supposed  oflicacy  of  the  ordinance,  or  hy  some 
other  means,  the  principles  of  the  forum  liavc  been  sup- 
planted by  those  of  Westminster ; — and  the  common  law, 
witli  some  statute  modifications,  is  the  only  law. 

The  character  of  the  legislation  is  not  so  good  as  it  might 
be.  The  members  of  the  legislature  are  mostly  very  young, 
and  uninstructed  in  the  principles  of  legislation  or  the  ope- 
ration of  law.  The  enactments  are  of  course  neither  con- 
ceived in  wisdom  nor  drawn  up  with  skill.  In  this  particular, 
however,  some  of  the  old  states  are  not  at  all  in  advance. 
The  most  objectionable  enactments  of  the  territories  will 
stand  comparison  with  the  laws  of  Maryland. 

Society  here  is  yet  in  that  stage  when  a  man's  only  thought 
is  to  gain  a  subsistence  ;  and  he  cannot  give  attention  to  the 
improvement  or  refinement  of  his  own  mind,  or  of  the  public 
mind  or  morals. 

By  the  constitution  of  Iowa,  however,  a  most  extensive 
and  solid  foundation  for  a  system  of  Public  Schools  in  that 
State  has  been  laid,  by  the  following  provisions  : 

"  2.  The  General  Assembly  shall  encourage,  by  all  suit- 
able means,  the  promotion  of  intellectual,  scientific,  moral 
and  agricultural  improvement.  The  proceeds  of  all  lands 
that  have  been  or  hereafter  may  be  granted  by  tlie  United 
States  to  this  State  for  the  support  of  schools,  which  shall 
hereafter  be  sold  or  disposed  of,  and  the  five  hundred  thou- 
sand acres  of  land  granted  to  the  new  states  under  an  act  of 
Congress  distributing  the  proceeds  of  the  pul)lic  lands  among 
the  several  states  of  the  Union,  approved  A.D.  1841,  and  all 
estates  of  deceased  persons,  who  may  have  died  witliout 
leaving  a  will  ov  heir ;  and  also  such  per  cent,  as  may  be 
granted  by  Congress  on  the  sale  of  lands  in  this  State,  shall 
be  and  remain  a  perpetual  fund,  the  interest  of  which,  together 
with  all  the  rents  of  the  unsold  lands,  and  such  other  means 


144  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

as  the  General  Assembly  may  provide,  shall  be  inviolably 
appropriated  to  the  support  of  common  schools  throughout 
the  State. 

"  3.  The  General  Assembly  shall  provide  for  a  system 
of  common  schools,  by  which  a  school  shall  be  kept  up  and 
supported  in  each  school  district  at  least  three  months  in 
every  year ;  and  any  school  district  neglecting  to  keep  up 
and  support  such  a  school,  may  be  deprived  of  its  proportion 
of  the  interest  of  the  public  fund  during  such  neglect. 

"  4.  The  money  which  shall  be  paid  by  persons  as  an 
equivalent  for  exemption  from  military  duty,  and  the  clear 
proceeds  of  all  fines  collected  in  the  several  counties  for  any 
breach  of  the  penal  laws,  shall  be  exclusively  applied  in  the 
several  counties  in  which  such  money  is  paid  or  fine  collect- 
ed, among  the  several  school  districts  of  said  counties,  in  the 
proportion  of  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  such  districts,  to 
the  support  of  common  schools,  or  the  establishment  of 
libraries,  as  the  General  Assembly  may  from  time  to  time 
provide  by  law." 

The  principal  employments  here  must  always  be  those 
connected  with  agriculture.  The  soil,  greatly  superior  as  it 
is  to  all  other  within  the  United  States,  cannot  fail  to  invite  a 
crowd  of  laborers  to  the  harvest.  But  it  is  better  even  for 
grazing  than  for  tillage.  The  grasses,  in  several  varieties, 
grow  with  astonishing  luxuriance.  Some  of  the  bottoms  bear 
a  grass  from  eight  to  nine  feet  high. 

The  prairies  have  been  mentioned  and  partially  described 
already.  The  geological  structure  of  these  lands  was  ex- 
hibited, and  the  general  appearance  of  their  surface  indicated 
in  speaking  of  the  physical  geography  of  the  Upper  Missisip- 
pi.  The  prairie  lands  are  similar  on  both  sides  of  the  Mis- 
sisippi.  Conjecture  is  at  fault  in  endeavors  to  account  for 
their  origin.     Two  circumstances  unite   to  retain   them   in 


PURSUITS.  145 

their  condition,  and  prevent  the  growth  of  grove  and  forest 
over  the  spaces  covered  only  with  tlic  long  grass  and  flowers. 
The  roots  of  the  grass  are  exceeding  tough,  and  form  a 
sward  which  keeps  down  the  slower  vegetation  of  the  em- 
bryo forest,  which  is  liere,  as  elsewhere,  conceived  within  the 
mould  of  the  teeming  eartli.  Tiiis  sward  is  so  compact  and 
strong,  that  five  or  six  yoke  of  oxen  are  necessary  for  a 
breaking  team,  with  a  very  large  plough  running  on  wheels, 
called  a  ])rairie  plough.  The  other  circumstance  adverse  to 
forest  growth,  beside  the  sward,  is  the  annual  burning  of  the 
prairies  by  the  Indians  and  hunters,  which  has  been  prac- 
tised since  the  country  was  first  visited  by  the  French  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  is  said,  by  the  discoverer  of  the 
Missisippi,  to  be  an  old  custom  of  the  natives.  The  bodies 
of  timber  are  almost  exclusively  on  the  streams,  and  the 
spaces  between  arc  prairie  ;  presenting,  at  their  junction,  the 
similitude  of  shore  and  sea  ;  which  likeness,  no  doubt,  in- 
duced an  old  sailor  (whom  1  know)  to  fix  his  residence  and 
build  his  house  on  one  of  these  poi?its,  as  the  projections  of 
the  groves  into  the  prairie  are  called,  where,  in  prospect  lay 
before  him  a  wide  expanse  of  prairie 

"  stretching 
In  graceful  undulations,  far  away 
As  if  the  ocean  in  his  gentlest  swell 
Stood  still,  with  all  his  rounded  billows  fixed 
And  motionless — " 

The  prairie  has,  for  the  most  part,  this  undulating  surface. 
Some  of  it  is  broken  by  ridges  and  deep  ravines,  some  only 
slightly  undulating,  sufficient  to  shed  the  waters,  some  a  dead 
level  as  true  as  could  be  drawn  willi  a  line.  Of  course 
some  of  these  tracts  of  prairie  are  wet,  others  dry.  On 
these  prairies,  so  long  as  the  coiuitry  is  only  partially  selllcd, 


146  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

and  the  lands  unappropriated  and  unfenccd,  the  cattle  of  the 
neighlwring  settler  make  their  summer  range,  finding  the 
most  abundant  and  the  sweetest  pastures.  At  the  end  of 
their  summer  feeding  these  cattle  are  all  good  beef  without 
any  stall  feeding  ;  and  the  butter  is  the  most  delicious  in  the 
world.  During  a  residence  of  six  years  in  Iowa,  the  writer 
scarcely  ever  ate  butter  that  was  not  superior  to  the  choicest 
butter  to  be  purchased  in  any  of  the  eastern  cities.  The 
prairie  grass  is  also  cut  by  the  farmer  for  his  winter  feeding, 
and  supplies  a  coarse  but  sweet  and  excellent  hay.  In  most 
places  in  the  new  settlements  it  is  the  only  hay  used.  In  a 
few  years'  mowing,  however,  the  weeds  succeed  to  the  grass, 
and  it  becomes  necessary  to  go  further  for  the  hay,  or  to 
introduce  the  English  hay  upon  the  farmer's  own  grounds. 

The  cost  of  breaking  the  prairie  is  from  $1,50  to  $2  per 
acre,  at  this  time,  in  the  older  parts  of  Iowa,  and  other  places 
where  settlements  have  been  made  ten  or  fifteen  years.  In 
the  newer  settlements,  it  is  always  higher ;  and  all  expenses 
of  living,  and  the  price  of  labor,  are  greater.  In  the  first 
settlement  of  Iowa,  as  high  as  $5  an  acre  was  paid  for 
breaking.  The  wages  of  a  farming  hand  was  then  from  $25 
to  $30  a  month ;  now,  it  is  about  $8  to  $10.  Provisions 
then  bore  about  the  same  proportion  to  the  present  prices. 

The  cost  of  making  a  prairie  farm  at  this  time  in  the  river 
counties,  or  in  the  parts  of  Iowa  known  as  Scott's  purchase, 
comprising  all  the  country  to  which  the  Indian  title  was 
extinguished  prior  to  the  treaty  of  1842,  is  subjoined  : 


PURSUITS.  147 

Price  of  a  quarter  section,  160  acres,  at  $1,25  per 
acre $200 

Breaking  forty  acres,  at  $2 80 

Fencing  with  post  and  rails,  5  rails  high,  40  acres,  or 
5280  feet,  6  rails  for  every  ten  feet,  including  1  to 
each  pannel  for  post,  will  take  3168  rails,  at  about  $1 
per  hundretl,  say  $32     ------      32 

Cost  of  setting  uncertain.  


$312 


The  price  paid  for  getting  out  rails  is  usually  62^  cents  a 
hundred.  If  brought  from  a  distance,  the  transportation  will 
of  course  increase  the  price.  They  are  brought  down  the 
Missisippi,  and  sold  at  the  landing  at  the  foot  of  the  Upper 
Rapids,  at  $2  a  hundred. 

The  cost  of  a  cabin  maybe  set  down  at  $50  to  $150; 
and  with  stable  and  sheds,  may  make  the  whole  amount  to 
$500. 

Eighty  acres  of  land  is  quite  sufficient, — will  yield  as 
much  as  200  acres  in  the  east,  and,  especially  while  the  pas- 
lure  and  hay  may  be  taken  from  the  public  lands,  should  be 
the  limit  of  a  farmer's  purchase.  This  would  reduce  the 
cost  $100,  or  save  him  that  sum  to  add  to  the  improvements. 

The  product  of  an  acre  ranges  from  50  to  80  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  from  30  to  40  bushels  of  wheat,  from  70  to  80 
of  oats.  All  the  roots  grow  with  great  luxuriance,  onions 
attaining  to  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter;  radishes,  and  the 
long  roots,  to  doul^le  the  common  size  in  the  east.  Potatoes, 
and  other  garden  vegetables,  are  of  superior  quality  and 
abundant  yield. 

The  farmers  of  this  country  are  generally  men  of  good 
habits,  and  of  good  information  and  sense.  They  are  also 
hospitable  and  kind.     With  the  small   expense  which  I  have 


148  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

set  down,  and  with  the  addition  of  a  httle  farm  stock,*  a  far 
mer  makes  himself  comfortable,  nay,  independent,  for  life. 
He  has,  it  is  true,  a  rough  dwelling,  but  warm,  and  his  table 
is  abundantly  supplied  with  all  that  is  produced  on  the  soil, 
and  generally  with  the  necessaries  from  the  stores.  He  can 
have  his  bread,  and  potatoes,  and  beef,  and  pork,  almost 
without  a  thought.  He  knows  nothing  of  the  toil,  cost  and 
skill  requisite  to  manage  a  farm  east  of  the  mountains.  His 
cattle  range  the  richest  pasture  in  the  world,  and  his  hogs 
find  their  food  in  the  abundant  mast  of  the  groves.  His 
plough  merely  turns  the  sod,  and  no  artificial  garden  mould 
can  be  made  to  rival  the  fertility  and  easy  tillage  of  his 
fields.  The  only  thing  that  can  be  suggested  unfavorable  to 
the  soil  of  this  country  is,  that  its  very  great  productiveness 
may  not  be  propitious  to  habits  of  industry  in  the  cultivator. 
Standing  upon  the  bluff  of  the  great  river,  and  casting 
around  the  eyes  of  the  mind  over  the  transvisual  and  into  the 
future,  I  behold,  at  no  distant  point  of  time,  but  in  clear  and 
close  prospect,  a  vast  plain,  and  beautiful  more  than  vast, 
surpassing  in  fertility  and  easy  culture  the  most  favored 
regions  of  the  earth,  stretching  westward  from  the  ^lissisippi 
to  the  Upper  Missouri,  and  eastward  to  Michigan  ;  and  from 
the  mouths  of  Illinois  and  Missouri  northward  to  45°,  to  St. 
Peter's,  and  the  Coteau  des  Prairies,  covered  with  a  hardy 
and  industrious  population, — one  great  magnificent  garden — 
clothed  in  green  and  gold  ;  smiling  with  a  harvest,  the  boun- 
tiful supply  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  world.  This 
tract  covers  six  degrees  of  latitude,  comprising  about  150,- 
000  square  miles,  or  100,000,000  acres.  So  very  trifling  is 
the  unproductive  land,  that,  with  a  reservation  of  the  neces- 
sary wood-land  and  the  portion  devoted  to  the  support  of  the 

*  Horses  are  worth  from  :j|!40  to  $00,  cows  $10  to  $12.     These  are  the 
best  prices  when  they  are  put  in  market. 


PURSUITS.  149 

farm  animals,  one  lialf  of  tlii.s  amount  may  '")c  put  under 
plougli  if  necessary  ;  and  yielding  thirty  bushels  to  an  acre, 
which,  saving  casualties,  is  below  the  average  of  tlie  wheat 
crop  ;  its  product  would  be  1,500,000,000  bushels  for  a 
year,  or  of  Indian  corn,  double  that  quantity  : — and  this 
witliout  the  use  of  foreign  fertihzers,  almost  without  toil. 
The  chemistry  of  nature  can  do  no  more  to  make  the  earth 
yield  her  increase,  than  has  been  done  here.  God  has  never 
offered  a  richer  vineyard  to  the  hand  of  man  to  dress  and  to 
keep  than  this  which  is  now  spread  out  in  prospect  fair  and 
wide,  and  offered  to  the  multitudes  harassed  and  anxiously 
striving  for  subsistence  against  the  excessive  competition  of 
the  thronged  avenues  of  life  and  living  east  of  the  mountains, 
and  to  the  famishing  millions  of  the  superannuated  hemi- 
sphere beyond  the  sea. 

The  Upper  Missisippi,  surpassing  all  other  districts  in 
agiicultural  capabilities,  is  even  more  superior  as  a  grazing 
country.  I  think  it  not  too  much  to  say  that  a  given  number 
of  acres  here,  in  the  best  parts  of  the  tract,  would  support 
more  than  double  the  number  of  cattle  which  the  same  quan- 
tity of  land  will  feed  east  of  the  mountains.  Very  superior 
beef  is  made  upon  the  summer  range,  not  surpassed  by  the 
best  stalled  meat.  It  makes  butter  not  equalled  by  any  other 
feeding.  And  it  is  said  tliat  sheep  increase  their  size  and 
tlieir  fleece  upon  the  prairies.  The  advantages  over  other 
countries  for  wool  growing  may  be  perceived  at  once  by  a 
short  statement.  The  sheep  have  the  summer  range  upon 
tlie  prairie  without  cost,  and  the  expense  of  their  winter 
feeding  is  trifling.  The  prairie  hay  is  put  up  by  the  farmers 
at  a  cost  of  $1.50  to  $2  per  ton.  Suppose  a  thousand  slieep 
will  be  wintered  on  one  hundred  tons  of  hay,  which  is  near 
enough  to  tlie  truth,  beside  their  other  food.  The  cost  of 
one  hundred  tons  of  hay  will  l)e   from  $150  to  $200.     In 


150  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

most  parts  of  the  country  hay  is  worth  at  the  lowest 
$10  per  ton,  and  the  expense  of  their  feeding  would  be 
$1000.  Here  is  a  difference,  at  the  least,  of  $800.  Their 
other  feedins[  would  farther  diminish  the  sum  total  of  the 
expense.  In  this  business  of  wool  growing  a  farmer  may 
make  himself  independent  for  life  with  $1000  or  $2000. 
The  cost  of  getting  it  to  market  at  Boston  or  New  York 
does  not  exceed  one  cent  per  pound,  a  mere  trifle  on  the 
value. 

The  exports  of  wheat,  hides,  wool,  beef,  and  pork  from 
this  region  may  be  made  to  suppl}?"  the  world.  There  is 
even  now  a  larse  excess  over  the  consumption  of  the  coun- 
try.  Great  quantities  of  wheat  are  converted  into  flour  by 
the  mills  of  the  country,  which  make  the  best  quality  of 
superfine  flour.  The  advantages  for  milling  are  not  sur- 
passed, and  the  making  of  flour  will,  in  a  very  short  time, 
become  one  of  the  great  branches  of  industry  of  the  coun- 
try.    Butter  and  lead  will  also  be  heavy  items  of  export. 

Mining  is  one  of  the  principal  pursuits  of  the  inhabitants 
of  this  region.  There  are  probably  from  three  to  four  thou- 
sand, or  more,  persons  digging  for  lead  in  the  mineral  dis- 
trict. This  tract,  as  has  been  already  stated,  extends  over  a 
portion  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois.  There  are  about 
fifty  furnaces  employed  in  smelting  the  mineral. 

The  veins  vary  from  one  inch  to  one  foot  in  thickness  ; 
and  also  diff'er  greatly  in  the  depth,  or  descending  extent.  A 
vein  of  half  an  inch  thick  will  usually  give  a  profit  for 
working  it,  in  rock  digging,  where  blasting  is  necessary. 
The  crevices  which  contain  the  veins  of  ore,  usually  run 
from  east  to  west,  nearly,  with  a  small  variation.  This 
direction  is  very  uniform;  though  some  have  been  found 
quartering,  and  a  few,  chiefly  from  Mineral  Point  to  Wiscon- 
sin River,  having  a  north  and  south  direction.     Those  which 


PURSUITS.  151 

have  been  found  running  to  this  point  on  the  west  of  the  river, 
are  very  small  veins. 

There  are  two  modes  of  digging  for  the  mineral ;  by  sink- 
ing a  shaft  or  vertical  aperture,  which  is  the  more  usual ;  or 
by  opening  a  drift,  which  is  the  name  given  to  a  horizontal 
cavity.  In  many  cases,  in  working  a  shaft  in  the  rock  dig- 
gings, on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  the  digger  goes  down 
more  tlian  a  hundred  feet  before  finding  a  crevice. 

The  horizontal  angle  of  the  crevices  varies  from  zero  to  a 
right  angle,  the  same  crevice  taking  alternately  all  directions. 

Some  skill  is  necessary  in  selecting  the  spot  for  operations. 
The  proper  ground  is  known  to  the  experienced  miner,  by 
several  indications.  The  form  of  the  surface  is  one  of  the 
signs.  The  ground  has  usually  a  depression  transverse  to 
the  general  slope.  There  is  sometimes  a  change  in  the 
vegetation.  A  rank  growth,  in  a  direct  line,  of  the  long- 
rooted  plants,  is  one  of  the  indications.  Pieces  of  crystal- 
lized lime  arc  found  on  the  surface,  which  are  familiarly 
called  the  lead  blossom,  and,  on  digging,  detached  fragments 
of  rock  containing  some  mineral  are  usually  taken  out  very 
near  the  surface,  and  sometimes  found  without  diffmnir, 
called  gravel  mineral.  Black  flowers  imprinted  on  the  rock, 
as  if  by  the  action  of  gunpowder,  resembling  ferns,  are  also 
indications  of  ore.  When  these  signs  are  sufficient,  tlie 
miner  commences  "  prospecting,"  as  he  calls  it. 

The  ore,  or  "  mineral,"  as  it  is  always  called  by  the 
miners,  is  found  in  crystalline  form,  from  the  smallest  size 
visible,  to  masses  of  half  a  ton  in  weight.  It  is  usually 
found  in  black  or  ferruginous  clay.  It  sometimes  fills  the 
whole  crevice,  and  is  then  called  "  sheet  mineral ;"  some- 
times in  detached  pieces,  and  is  called  "  chunk  ore."  In 
the  rock  diggings  there  is  usually  a  thick  stratum  of  lime- 
stone overlying  the  rock  which  contains  the  mineral,  which 


152  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

superior  slratum  is  called  the  "  cap  rock."  The  fissures 
containing  the  ore  frequently  expand  into  large  caverns. 
They  are  generally,  in  this  case,  found  studded  with  stalac- 
tites of  calcareous  spar  on  the  roof. 

In  the  clay  diggings  the  ore  occurs  in  detached  fragments, 
and  is  called  "float  mineral." 

The  surface  of  the  ground,  in  certain  parts  of  the  mining 
district,  is  completely  honeycombed  with  the  shafts  of  the 
diggers,  to  the  danger  of  cattle  and  travellers.  The  work- 
men descend  into  the  shafts,  and  raise  their  mineral  by 
means  of  large  tubs  fixed  to  a  rope  and  windlass.  The 
mineral  is  very  pure,  generally  yielding  about  80  per  cent, 
of  lead.  An  analysis  of  two  average  specimens  of  galena 
is  given  in  ]\Ir.  Owen's  report  as  follows  : — 

1st  spec,  2d  spec. 

Sulphur -  16.00    14.63 

Lead 84.00    85.37 


100.00   100.00 

i\Ir.  Owen,  in  his  report  to  the  government,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing statement  of  the  process  of  mining  : — 

"  When  a  miner  sets  out  in  search  of  lead  ore,  he  usually 
begins  by  what  is  called  'prospecting;'  that  is,  on  those 
spots  where  surface  or  other  indications  lead  him  to  expect  a 
discovery  of  ore,  he  commences  digging  holes  or  sinking 
shafts,  usually  on  the  summit  or  the  declivity  of  a  hill. 
Should  he  fail  in  the  first  attempt  to  reach  gravel  mineral,  or 
to  come  upon  any  signs  of  neighborhood  to  a  fissure,  he  soon 
abandons  the  spot,  and  begins  to  dig  elsewhere.  The  ground 
in  many  portions  of  the  lead  districts  is  found  riddled  with 
such  pits,  called,  in  the  language  of  tlie  Wisconsin  miner, 
*  prospect  holes.'     Should  he  reach  encouraging  symptoms, 


PURSUITS.  153 

or  actually  strike  upon  a  vein,  or  upon  detached  pieces  of  ore 
ranging  downwards,  he  continues  his  labor,  often  with  very- 
great  profit. 

'*  When,  after  preliminary  examinations,  he  decides  to  sink 
a  sliaft,  with  the  view  of  striking  a  crevice,  he  is  compelled, 
until  he  reaches  the  rock,  to  wall  up  tlie  shaft  with  logs. 

"  These  shafts,  of  irregular  form,  usually  approaching  a 
cylinder,  are  generally  from  four  to  five  feet  across.  Some- 
times the  rock  is  soft  enough  to  be  quarried  with  hannner, 
gad,  and  pickaxe  ;  at  others,  it  is  found  necessary  to  blast  it 
with  gunpowder. 

"  The  mode  of  descending  is  by  means  of  a  rope  of  raw 
hide,  and  a  common  windlass  worked  by  one  or  two  men. 
By  the  same  simple  contrivance,  the  ore  is  raised  to  the  sur- 
face. Sometimes,  but  rarely,  ladders  are  used  to  ascend  and 
descend. 

"  When  a  miner  is  fortunate  enough  to  discover  a  produc- 
tive vein  accessible  from  a  hill-side,  he .  forms  a  drift,  and 
very  conveniently  conve3^s  the  ore  out  in  wheelbarrows — of 
course,  at  a  very  trifling  expense. 

"  The  sliafts  are  sunk  in  this  lead  region  to  the  depth  of 
fifty,  one  hundred,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  They  arc 
usually  abandoned  as  soon  as  the  mine  is  inundated  with 
water,  unless  the  miner,  by  drifting  (that  is,  working  horizon- 
tally) until  the  external  surface  of  the  hill  is  reached,  can 
readily  drain  the  mine.  There  is  but  a  single  instance  in  the 
district  where  a  mine  has  been  prosecuted  after  being  flooded 
with  water,  which  could  not  thus  be  got  rid  of — namely,  at 
Hamilton's  diggings,  near  the  Peccatonnica,  where  the  mine 
is  readily  drained  by  a  small  steam-engine.  The  water  in 
this  mine  was  struck  at  the  depth  of  thirty  feet,  and  the  mine 
has  been  worked  with  profit  thirty-five  feet  below  that  point. 

"  In  the   deeper  digguigs,  the   damp  (carbonic  acid  gas) 

8* 


151  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

sometimes  accumulates  in  such  quantities  towards  the  bottom 
as  to  render  it  dangerous  to  work.  This  happens  chiefly  in 
the  hot  months  of  summer ;  and  at  such  seasons  the  miners 
are  frequently  compelled  to  discontinue  their  labors. 

"  The  means  of  ventilation  yet  employed  are  very  simple. 
A  cloth  funnel,  its  upper  portion  so  placed  as  to  receive  the 
breeze  and  to  deflect  it  into  the  shaft,  is  the  only  contriv 
ance. 

"  The  lead  ore,  which,  wdth  a  few  local  exceptions,  is 
alone  found  or  worked  in  this  district,  is  the  galena,  or  sul- 
phuret  of  lead ;  the  same  species  of  ore  from  which  nearly 
all  the  lead  of  commerce  is  derived. 

''  One  of  these  local  exceptions,  however,  is  to  be  found 
at  Mr.  Brigham's  mines,  near  the  Blue  Mounds,  where  car- 
bonate of  lead  is  raised  in  considerable  quantities  along  witli 
the  galena.  This  carbonate  is  also  found  in  other  portions 
of  the  district.  It  is  very  easily  reduced — more  so  than  the 
sulphuret,  inasmuch  as  the  carbonic  acid  is  more  readily 
expelled  than  the  sulphur." 

The  value  of  the  lead  sent  down  the  Missisippi  annually 
for  several  years  has  been  something  over  one  million  dollars. 
A  considerable  quantity  also  goes  by  the  lakes  to  New  York  : 
and  probably,  taking  into  the  computation  what  goes  out  in 
both  directions,  and  what  is  used  in  the  country,  the  whole 
produce  of  the  mines  is  one  and  a  half  million  dollars. 

It  is  evident,  upon  an  examination  of  this  statement,  that 
the  business  of  mining  is  not  a  very  profitable  one  to  tliose 
eneajred.  Takinsc  the  whole  value  to  be  one  and  a  half 
million  dollars,  of  which  one-third  goes  to  the  smelter,  we 
"have  one  million  dollars  to  be  divided  among,  say  3,000  la- 
borers, or  three  hundred  and  thirty-three  dollars  to  each,  as 
the  result  of  the  year's  labor.     But  this  is  very  unequally 


PURSUITS.  155 

distribuled  ;    and  pcrliaps  ninety  in  each  hundred   actually 
realize  much  less  than  this,  while  a  few  make  fortunes. 

In  the  northeastern  part  of  this  district,  on  lands  south  of 
Lake  Superior,  lately  purchased  from  the  Chippewas,  is  a 
body  of  copper  ore,  supposed  to  be  the  richest  in  the  world. 
It  is  almost  pure  in  some  specimens  :  so  that,  as  taken  from 
the  earth,  it  was  wrought  into  church  vessels  by  some  of  the 
French  who  hrst  visited  the  place  ;  and  a  portion  of  the 
large  rock  deposited  in  the  ground  of  the  War  Department  at 
Washington  has  been  polished  so  as  to  present  the  appear- 
ance of  sheet  copper.  Many  companies  and  individuals  have 
taken  leases  of  the  government,  and  conunenced  operations 
there.  Some  of  them  have  had  good  success,  and  have  found 
silver  as  well  as  copper.  This  will  no  doubt  soon  be  an 
important  business,  and  give  regular  employment  to  many 
persons.  The  iron  and  coal  will  also  at  no  distant  time  be 
w^orked  ;  and  in  Clinton  and  Jackson  counties,  in  Iowa,  in 
the  great  coal  district  in  Illinois,  and  perhaps  on  the  Des 
Moines,  in  Iowa,  will  be  a  great  number  of  laborers  engaged 
in  quarrying  coal,  and  in  digging  and  working  iron. 

In  the  territories  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  which  comprise 
the  principal  part  of  the  district  subject  to  these  notes,  the 
channels  of  industry  arc  not  yet  shaped  by  the  small  and  ir- 
regular streams  that  have  only  partially  occupied  them.  The 
business  of  the  country  has  hardly  yet  taken  a  direction ;  and 
all  the  secondary  pursuits,  trade,  the  mechanic  arts,  the  pro- 
fessions, have  not  acquired  the  consistency  or  development 
of  matured  form.  The  professions  are  doubly  stocked  ;  the 
other  pursuits  are  many  of  them  not  sulliricntly  fdled;  there 
is  that  languor  in  industry  and  enterprise,  necessarily  conse- 
quent upon  a  raj)id  growth.  The  circulation  is  sluggish — 
the  arteries  arc  not  well  lillcd  with  a  lieallhy  lluid.  Money 
is  wanting,  wealth,  means,  men,  enterprise,  are  needed,  to 


]56  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

bring  up  the  business  of  the  country  to  a  parallel  with  its 
population.  The  first  has  moved  on  with  a  slow  and  laggard 
step,  while  the  last  has  pressed  on  with  a  series  of  continued 
strides  outstripping  the  imagination.  Men  and  capital,  men 
with  capital,  and  men  skilled  in  the  arts,  and  enterprising,  are 
they  who  are  wanting  there.  Mill-wrights,  and  millers,  tan- 
ners, and  leather-dressers,  saddlers,  shoe-makers,  wool-card- 
ers, brick-makers,  brick-layers,  stone-masons,  and  carriage- 
makers — traders  with  capital,  knowledge,  and  liberal  views 
of  trade,  will  all  find  a  broad  field  and  a  fair  chance. 

The  emigrant  comes  to  this  country  frequently  in  his  large, 
covered  freight  wagon,  drawn  by  four  horses,  containing  his 
household  utensils,  called,  in  the  language  of  the  country, 
plunder  :  his  wife,  and  girls,  and  small  children,  put  in  to 
make  stowage,  and  himself,  and  one  or  two  of  the  bigger 
boys  on  foot,  driving  the  cows  and  hogs.  In  this  way  he 
travels  day  after  day,  and  week  after  week,  sometimes  month 
after  month,  stopping  by  the  side  of  a  brook  at  night,  cooking 
his  food  with  the  wood  lying  near,  making  his  supper  w^ith 
spice  superior  to  that  of  the  Indies — a  good  appetite — and 
sleeping  at  night  on  the  bank  of  the  stream,  where  he  had 
before  spread  his  table  :  his  board  and  couch  supplied  by 
nature.  If  the  weather  is  inclement,  all  bundle  into  the  wagon 
or  on  the  ground,  beneath  its  cover,  and  slumber  there.  When 
he  finds  a  place  that  suits  him  for  settlement,  if  it  is  unoccu- 
pied, he  is  of  course  at  no  loss  for  accommodation.  He  has 
the  same  lodging  that  he  had  upon  his  journey,  and,  being  his 
own  entertainer,  any  defects  in  the  entertainment  will  not 
make  a  difference  between  such  good  friends.  He  lodges  in 
the  wagon  or  by  its  side,  cooking  his  repast  from  the  faggots 
lying  in  the  gi'ove,  till  he  has  laid  up  a  log  cabin  for  his  resi- 
dence. This  is  generally  constructed  of  logs  as  taken  from 
the  grove,  unshaped,  and  with  the  bark  on  :  with  a  puncheon 


LIFE.  157 

floor,  as  he  calls  it,  thai  is,  made  of  split  logs  not  sawed  or 
dressed,  with  a  chiinncy  of  sticks  and  mud,  and  with  one 
door  and  one  half-window.  The  chinks  of  the  cabin  are 
stopped  with  chunks  of  wood  and  filled  in  with  mud.  In 
this  residence,  consisting  of  one  apartment,  with  a  furniture 
corresponding  with  the  style  of  the  architecture,  his  family 
of  half  a  dozen  find  accommodation,  and  travellers  are  lodged 
when  they  ask  it. . 

Here  he  lives  in  content ;  breaks  up  forty  acres  of  prairie 
and  fences  it,  drops  his  seed,  and,  without  the  expense  or 
labor  of  spreading  foreign  fertilizers  over  his  field,  has  an 
abundant  crop,  ilis  bread  and  potatoes  come  almost  at  his 
bidding.  He  lives  an  easy  and  a  happy  life,  certainly.  He 
treads  upon  flowers.  His  path  is  literally  strewn  with  them. 
The  prairie  around  his  cabin  is  a  flower-garden.  The  dew, 
which  is  only  poetry  to  the  man  of  imagination,  and  sparlvling 
romance  to  the  novel-reading  miss  of  the  city,  is  to  him  an 
every-day  reality,  bathing  his  feet  when  the  lark  sings  to  his 
going  out  in  the  morning ;  spreading  his  fields  with  a  silvery 
mantle,  and  filling  his  stacks  with  a  golden  harvest. 

But  life  in  a  new  country  has  its  privations  and  hardships. 
Notwithstanding  the  ease  with  which  he  gets  bread,  there 
are  many  of  the  comforts  of  living  that  he  cannot  obtain.  To 
the  man  who  has  been  used  to  them,  their  loss  is  severely 
felt ;  but  to  the  roving  emigrant,  to  the  real  pioneer,  they  are 
unknown.  He  has  always  hung  on  to  the  skirts  of  civilisa- 
tion, but  without  knowing  its  advantages  or  comforts  ;  and, 
whenever  a  new  purchase  has  been  made,  his  wagon-wheel 
has  pointed  the  way  to  the  settlers  coming  after  him.  Thus 
he  passes  his  life  :  sojourning  in  the  purchase  a  few  years 
till  another  is  made,  and  then  hastening  away  to  a  new  abode 
to  occupy  that  in  turn  till  a  settler  upon  a  neighboring  tov\Ti- 


158  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

ship,  or  a  new  acquisition  from   the  Indian,   furnishes  an 
incentive  to  move  again  further  west. 

This  first  class  of  moving  emigrants,  or  pioneers,  com- 
monly select  for  their  residence  a  position  in  a  grove,  or 
dense  body  of  timber,  where,  by  the  exclusion  of  sunbeams, 
and  almost  of  the  atmosphere,  a  perpetual  dampness  reigns. 
This  is  frequently  upon  a  low  bottom,  or  on  the  banks  of  a 
stream.  Though  he  has  no  intention  of  passing  his  life  there, 
yet  the  fancied  wealth  of  the  timber  region,  its  superior 
value,  as  he  thinks,  over  the  prairie,  decides  his  choice  in 
favor  of  that  position  ;  and,  neglecting  the  high,  open, 
healthy  prairie,  that  spreads  before  him,  a  sea  in  extent,  a 
virgin  soil  unequalled  and  inexhaustible,  where,  in  two  years, 
he  might  be  the  possessor  of  a  rich  farm,  he  seeks  the  immer- 
sion of  a  dense  and  damp  forest,  where,  with  his  poor  cabin 
and  his  habits  of  life,  his  exposure  and  hardship,  combined 
with  the  atmosphere  and  the  decaying  vegetation,  the  fever 
and  ague  is  soon  added  to  the  list  of  his  comforts,  and  sets 
its  mark  of  pallid  emaciation  on  the  countenances  of  the 
family.  This  injudicious  selection  has  led  to  the  supposition 
that  the  country  was  more  unhealthy  than,  in  fact,  it  is. 

The  following,  from  Birkbeck's  Notes,  is  a  lively  picture 
of  Western  life  in  some  positions ;  exhibiting  the  effect  of  a 
situation  like  that  above-mentioned  : — 

"■  Our  journey  across  the  Little  Wabash  was  a  complete 
departure  from  all  mark  of  civilisation.  We  saw  no  bears, 
as  they  are  now  buried  in  the  thickets,  and  seldom  appear  by 
day ;  but,  at  every  few  yards,  we  saw  recent  marks  of  their 
doings — '  wallowing'  in  the  long  grass,  or  turning  over  the 
decayed  logs  in  quest  of  beetles  or  worms,  in  which  work  the 
strengtli  of  this  animal  is  equal  to  that  of  four  men.  Wan- 
dering without  track,  where  even  the  sagacity  of  our  hunter- 


HABITS.  159 

guide  liad  nearly  failed  us,  we  at  length  arrived  at  the  cabin 
of  another  hunter,  where  we  lodged. 

"  This  man  and  his  family  are  remarkable  instances  of  the 
effect  on  the  complexion  produced  by  the  perpetual  incar- 
ceration of  a  thorough  woodland  life.  Incarceration  may  be 
a  term  less  applicable  to  the  condition  of  a  roving  backwoods- 
man than  to  any  other,  and  especially  unsuitable  to  the  habits 
of  this  man  and  his  family  :  for  the  cabin  in  which  he  enter- 
tained us  is  the  third  dwelling  he  has  built  within  the  last 
twelve  months  ;  and  a  very  slender  motive  w^ould  place  him 
in  a  fourth  before  the  ensuing  winter.  In  his  general  habits, 
the  hunter  ranges  as  freely  as  the  beast  he  pursues.  Labor- 
ing under  no  restraint,  his  activity  is  only  bounded  by  his 
own  physical  powers.  Still  he  is  incarcerated — *  shut  from 
the  common  air — buried  in  the  depth  of  a  boimdless  forest — 
the  breeze  of  heallh  never  reaches  these  poor  wanderers. 
They  are  tall  and  pale,  like  vegetables  that  grow  in  a  vault, 
pining  for  light.' 

"  The  man,  his  pregnant  wife,  his  eldest  son,  a  tall,  half- 
naked  youth,  just  initiated  in  the  hunter's  art,  and  three 
daughters,  crpowing  up  into  great  rude  girls,  and  a  squalling 
tribe  of  dirty  brats  of  both  sexes,  are  of  one  pale  yellow, 
without  the  slightest  tint  of  healthful  bloom. 

"  In  passing  through  a  vast  expanse  of  the  backwoods,  I 
have  been  so  much  struck  with  this  effect,  that  I  fancy  I 
could  determine  the  color  of  the  inhabitants  if  I  was  apprised 
of  the  depth  of  their  immersion ;  and,  vice  versa^  I  could 
judge  of  the  extent  of  the  clearings  if  I  saw  the  people.  The 
blood,  I  fancy,  is  not  supplied  with  its  proper  dose  of  oxygen 
from  their  gloomy  atmosphere,  crowded  with  vegetables 
growing  almost  in  the  dark,  or  decomposing,  and,  in  cither 
case,  abstracting  from  the  air  this  vital  principle." — Notes, 
138,  et  seq. 


160  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

This  description  of  Mr.  Birkbeck  may  not  be  exaggerated 
in  reference  to  some  portions  of  the  population.  Indeed,  it 
strikingly  reminds  the  writer  of  some  specimens  he  has  met 
with ;  but  it  would  lead  to  great  error  if  taken  as  a  picture 
of  the  country.  In  other  situations,  remote  from  the  streams, 
and  on  high  ground,  particularly  in  the  prairies,  the  country 
cannot  be  said  to  be  unhealth3^  In  all  parts  of  the  country, 
it  is  true,  the  fever  and  ague  and  bilious  fever  are  rather  fre- 
quent ;  but  there  is  also  an  exemption  from  some  of  the  dis- 
orders prevalent  in  other  parts.  The  usual  forms  of  colds, 
hoarseness,  coughing,  sore  throat,  and  pulmonary  affections, 
are  almost  unknown.  Bilious  disorders  and  affections  of 
the  liver  are  the  diseases  of  the  country  ;  but,  it  is  believed, 
there  has  been  less  fatal  sickness,  and  less  of  prevailing  epi- 
demics, than  in  most  other  portions  of  the  country  in  the  first 
settlement  and  turning  up  of  the  soil.  The  case  described 
by  Mr.  Birkbeck  was  partly  owing  to  situation,  but  more, 
probably,  to  habits  of  life,  and  privations  and  exposure. 

Apart  from  the  partial  causes  of  disease  existing  in  parti- 
cular situations,  arising  from  the  exhalations  of  the  rivers, 
the  decaying  vegetation  of  the  bottoms  overflowed  and  left 
dry,  or  the  marshy  or  wet  grounds  which  are  not  strangers  to 
any  country,  there  is  no  general  unhealthiness  in  the  climate 
itself.  The  atmosphere  of  the  country  is  in  an  unusual 
degree  adapted  to  the  preservation  of  health  ;  as  is  proved  by 
its  effects  upon  the  throat  and  lungs.  The  prairies  send  not 
forth  pestilence  ;  and  what  is  purer  than  the  breeze  from  the 
lakes  ?  The  temperature  is  variable,  it  is  true  ;  but  the  air 
is  arid  and  the  circulation  free  and  brisk,  and  tliese  qualities 
forbid  that  the  great  and  sudden  vicissitudes  sliould  create 
disease.  These  changes  are  sometimes  so  great  in  a  brief 
space  as  to  be  incredible.  The  writer  is  conscious  tliat  it 
requires  an  easy  faith  to  believe  the  assertion  that  he  once 


HEALTH.  \6i 

knew  Fahrenheit  to  fall  from  52  plus  to  4  minus  in  1  wenty-four 
hours. 

The  greatest  degree  of  cold  in  a  winter  is  greater  here  tlian 
on  the  Atlantic  in  the  same  latitude,  as  the  philosopher  would 
judge  from  his  science,  without  the  testimony  of  a  witness. 
The  great  reservoir  of  latent  caloric,  in  the  deep  bed  of  the 
Atlantic,  must  of  necessity  mitigate  the  extreme  rigor  of  the 
atmosphere  from  the  earth.  In  a  residence  of  sixteen  years 
on  the  Missisippi,  the  writer  thinks  that  no  winter  passed 
when  the  thermometer  did  not  go  as  low  as  24  below  zero, 
by  Fahrenheit,  in  lat.  41°  to  42'^.  There  is  not,  however,  a 
great  deal  of  snow  in  the  winter,  nor  is  there  generally  much 
rain  in  the\summer.  In  most  of  the  seasons  within  the 
writer's  observation,  the  crops  would  have  suffered  by  drought, 
if  it  had  not  been  for  the  abundant  dews. 

The  spring  is  a  shorter  season  here  than  east  of  the  moun- 
tains. Wild  llowers  make  their  appearance  from  the  10th  to 
the  15th  of  April.  The  fall  is  a  most  delightful  season.  The 
heats  of  summer  correspond  exactly,  measuring  by  the  ther- 
mometer, with  other  places  in  the  same  parallel.  But  the 
atmosphere  is  not  so  dense,  and  of  course  the  heat  has  a 
greater  effect  upon  the  human  system,  and  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  coming  with  less  refraction,  produce  a  stronger  glare 
upon  the  eye,  as  well  as  a  more  scorching  heat  in  the  veins. 

Next  to  the  air  in  preserving  health,  perhaps  superior  to  it, 
is  pure  water.  This  is  a  limestone  country,  and  of  course  all 
the  water  is  impregnated  with  this  stone.  The  writer  is  no 
physician  ; — but  he  considers  a  limestone  water  as  particu- 
larly favorable  to  health.  The  water  is  of  an  agreeable  taste, 
pleasant,  and  very  clear.  But  the  inhabitants  have  a  very 
disgusting  practice  of  drinking  from  the  rivers  and  running 
streams,  into  which  every  unclean  thing  enters.  The  bucket 
is  thrown  from  the  steamijoat  within  one  or  two  rods  of  the 


162  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST 

crypt  that  serves  one  or  two  hundred  persons.  All  the 
dwellers  on  the  banks  carry  their  water  from  the  same  pol- 
luted stream.  And  if  a  more  fortunate  resident  on  the  banks 
of  a  creek  drinks  from  a  less  vitiated  source,  yet  this  is  not 
without  its  share  of  decaying  vegetation  and  other  matters 
injurious  to  health.  This  is  a  surprising  inattention  to  com- 
fort and  decency,  as  well  as  to  health,  when  it  is  known  that 
a  pure  spring  may  generally  be  struck  at  twenty  or  thirty  feet 
from  the  surface. 

If  with  this  impure  and  unhealthy  habit,  joined  to  the  ex- 
posure from  the  dwelling,  from  its  insufficiency  as  a  shelter, 
from  unaccustomed  labors  and  hardships,  and  from  the  exlia- 
lations  of  undrained  and  of  newly  cultivated  country,  the 
amount  of  sickness  and  of  mortality  is  not  more  than  double 
the  amount  in  a  like  population  in  other  parts,  the  climate  of 
the  countr}'"  ought  to  be  considered  salubrious. 

A  few  remarks  extracted  from  "  Peck's  Guide  to  the  West," 
inserted  in  that  work  as  a  quotation,  have  the  concurrence  of 
the  writer  : — 

"  Much  disease,  especially  in  the  more  recently  settled 
parts  of  this  country,  is  consequent  to  neglecting  simple  and 
comfortable  precautionary  means  ;  sometimes  this  neglect  is 
owing  to  misdirected  industr}^  and  at  others  to  laziness  or  evil 
habits. 

"  To  have  a  dry  house,  if  it  be  a  log  one,  with  the  open- 
ings between  the  logs  well  filled  up,  so  that  it  may  be  kept 
warm  in  winter ;  to  fill  up  all  the  holes  in  its  vicinity  which 
may  contain  stagnant  water  ;  to  have  a  good  clean  spring  or 
well,  sufficient  clothing,  and  a  reasonable  supply  of  provisions, 
should  be  the  first  object  of  a  settler's  attention.  But  fre- 
quently a  little  wet  smoky  cabin  or  hovel  is  erected,  with  the 
floor  scarcely  separated  from  the  ground,  and  admitting  the 
damp  and  unwholesome  air.     All  hands  that  can  work  are 


HEALTH.  163 

impelled,  by  the  fatlier's  example,  to  ]a])or  beyond  llicir 
strength,  and  more  land  is  cleared  and  planted  with  corn  than 
is  well  tended  ;  for  over-exertion,  change  in  the  manner  of 
living,  and  the  influence  of  other  debilitating  causes,  bring 
sickness  on  at  least  a  part  of  the  family  before  the  summer 
is  half  over. 

•  •*•••• 

"  Many  persons,  on  moving  into  the  back  woods,  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  the  decencies  of  life,  think  it  is  little 
matter  how  they  live,  because  no  one  sees  them.  Thus  we 
have  known  a  family  of  some  opulence  to  reside  for  years  in 
a  cabin  unfit  for  the  abode  of  any  human  being,  because  they 
could  not  find  time  to  build  a  house  ;  and  whenever  it  rained 
hard  the  females  were  necessarily  engaged  in  rolling  the  beds 
from  one  corner  of  the. room  to  another,  in  order  to  save  them 
from  the  water  that  poured  in  through  the  roof.  This  cabin 
was  intended  at  first  as  only  a  very  temporary  residence,  and 
was  erected  on  the  edge  of  a  swamp,  for  the  convenience  of 
being  near  to  a  spring.  How  unreasonable  must  such  people 
be  if  they  expect  health  !" 

THE    PUBLIC    LANDS. 

The  immense  body  of  unappropriated  and  unsettled  lands 
in  this  countr)',  comprising  more  than  270,000,000  acres,*  is 
commonly  denominated  government  lands,  and  in  all  action 
upon  them,  both  by  individuals  and  by  public  bodies,  legis- 

*  By  the  returns  in  the  Land  Office,  dated  June,  1845,  which  is  the 
latest  return,  the  whole  amount  purchased  of  the  Indians,  and  yet  in  the 
hands  of  the  Government,  not  granted  to  individuals,  surveyed  and  un- 
surveyed,  amounts  to  272, 825,055  acres.  At  the  time  of  writing  this  note, 
a  treaty,  just  concluded  with  the  Potawatamis,  and  also  another,  are  before 
the  Senate.  These  will  probably  make  the  amount  about  300,000,000 
acres. 


164  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

lative  or  judicial,  they  are  treated  as  the  property  of  the 
government  ; — as  if  the  government  held  them  in  fee  simple. 

Such  an  idea  of  an  estate  in  fee  in  the  government  cannot, 
however,  be  sustained  upon  any  recognized  principles  of  politi- 
cal law  in  this  coimtry.  In  England,  it  is  true,  the  doctrine  for- 
merly obtained  that  the  property  of  all  the  lands  in  the  realm  was 
vested  in  the  crown,  and  that  the  king  might  dispose  of  them 
as  pleased  him,  without  restriction.  Under  our  government 
an  original  tenure  in  fee  of  the  lands  within  the  national  do- 
main, has  never  been  acknowledged  as  an  incident  of  sove- 
reignty, or  as  in  any  way  an  attribute  or  prerogative  of  the 
government.  The  government  with  us  is  considered  to  have 
neither  power,  domain,  prerogative,  property,  nor  revenue,  but 
as  trustees  for  the  States,  and  expressly  given  by  the  con- 
stitution. 

Such  dominion  as  the  government  have  over  the  public 
lands  is  not  original,  but  acquired — it  gives  them  not  an  estate 
in  fee,  but  an  interest  in  nature  of  a  right  of  possession  with 
a  lien  or  mortgage,  for  the  payment  of  the  expenses  of  ex- 
tinguishing the  Indian  title,  of  surveying  and  of  bringing  into 
market ;  and  that  interest  not  in  the  nature  of  a  usufruct,  but 
fiduciary. 

The  Indian  nations  who  formerly  inhabited  or  roamed  over 
these  lands  knew  nothing  of  separate  property,  nothing  of 
estates  in  fee,  or  less — they  recognized  no  tenure,  or  investi- 
ture of  title.  Their  claim  was  to  a  right  of  hunting.  By 
their  treaties  they  give  up  that  to  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  And  it  is  all  they  have  to  give.  They  cannot  convey 
more.  They  cannot  convey  what  they  do  not  possess.  They 
do  not  convey  any  absolute  title,  but  relinquish  their  claim, 
which  is  a  riglit  of  possession  merely.  No  person,  or  body 
politic,  or  community,  can  convey  to  anotlicr  what  such 
person  or  body  has  not  in  itself :  nor  can  any  grantee  acquire 


PUBLIC    LANDS.  165 

any  title  by  grant   from  anotlier  which  the  grantor  did  not 
possess. 

What  is  tlic  Indian  title  ?  It  is  mere  occupancy  for  the 
purpose  of  hunting.  It  is  not  like  our  tenures.  They  have 
no  idea  of  a  title  to  the  soil  itself.  It  is  overrun  by  them, 
rather  than  inhabited.  It  is  not  a  true  and  legal  possession. 
[Vattel,  b.  1,  ^  81,  p.  37,  and  ^  209,  b.  2,  p.  96.  Montes.,  b. 
18,  ch.  12.  Smith,  Wealth  of  Nat.,  b.  5,  cli.  1 .]  It  is  a  right 
not  to  be  transferred,  but  extinguished:  regulated  by  treaties, 
not  by  deeds  of  conveyance.  It  depends  upon  the  law  of 
nations,  not  upon  municipal  right.  [J.  Q.  Adams,  Fletcher 
vs.  Peck,  Cranch,  vol.  6,  p.  121.] 

But  beside  that  the  Indians  have  no  idea  of  individual 
propert}^  in  the  land,  and  pretend  to  no  right  but  as  a  com- 
munity, and  that  founded  on  a  residence  or  occupancy,  that 
residence  itself  is  not  of  a  permanent  nature.  They  occupy 
only  till  tliey  find  a  more  convenient  spot,  or  till  they  are 
driven  from  the  one  which  they  select  by  some  neighboring 
hostile  tribe,  and  then  seek  another  hunting-ground  in  the  vast 
expanse  of  unoccupied  country  before  them.  In  this  way 
the  Sauks  have  passed  from  the  lower  waters  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  Missisippi.  Their  last  occupation  of  the 
mouth  of  Rock  River  and  the  western  bank  of  the  Missi- 
sippi, was  made  at  the  period  nearly  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution, when  they  were  driven  south  by  the  Chippewas.  It 
is  only  about  ten  years  ago,  as  stated  by  Nicollet,  that  the 
northern  Chippewas  drove  the  Sioux  to  the  south  of  their 
old  limits,  and  compelled  them  to  pitch  their  tents  some  hun- 
dreds of  miles  farther,  stretching  to  the  west  and  south  uf 
the  Missouri. 

If,  however,  it  were  otherwise,  society  could  not  allow  that 
a  small  comnumity  of  5,000  or  6,000,  if  civilized  men, 
claiming  property  in  severalty,  and  by  a  permanent  tenure, 


166  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

should  occupy  exclusively  a  territory  sufficient  to  sustain  ten 
millions  of  people. 

These  lands  are  then  in  the  state  in  which  all  lands  are 
orio-inallv,  and  the  title  to  them  is  to  be  acquired  in  the  same 
w^ay  in  which  all  titles  are  at  first  acquired,  by  occupancy  ; 
which  is  as  good  as  title  by  deed,  and  better,  as  an  original  is 
better  than  a  derivative  title,  which  all  titles  by  deed  are,  and 
which  must  be  resolved  ultimately  to  an  original  title  by  oc- 
cupancy. The  settler,  then,  has  a  good  title  to  these  lands, 
against  all  the  world,  but  the  government,  absolute — and 
against  the  government  upon  the  condition  of  paying  the  lien 
for  expenses,  which  has  been  fixed  at  $1.25  per  acre.  The 
goverimient  neither  has,  nor  can  it  acquire,  by  any  principle 
known  to  the  law,  a  fee  simple  in  the  lands.  The  only  w^ay 
in  which  it  can  be  acquired  is  by  the  settler,  by  occupancy. 

Title  by  occupancy  is  not  only  a  legal  and  valid  title,  but 
it  is  the  onhj  title  by  which  lands  are  or  can  he  originally 
held,  except  where  the  English  doctrine  holds,  which  gives 
them  to  the  king.  In  this  country  they  are  held  by  the  law 
of  nature  until  relinquished  by  tlie  bands  of  red  men,  who 
have  resided  on  them,  and  then,  not  belonging  to  the  govern- 
ment as  by  the  English  law  they  belong  to  the  crown,  are 
open  to  the  first  occupier 

Occupancy  is  the  true  ground  and  foundation  of  property, 
or  of  holding  those  things  in  severalty,  which,  by  the  law  of 
nature,  unqualified  by  that  of  society,  were  common  to  all 
mankind. — Black.  Com.,  v.  2,  p.  158  ;  ib.,  p.  8. 

This  is  not  depending  on  the  authority  of  Blackstone 
alone,  but  it  is  also  the  doctrine  of  Grotius,  Pullendorf, 
Locke,  Rutherforth,  Vattel,  Montesquieu,  Burlemaqui, 
Smith,  and  others,  who  have  treated  of  natural  and  political 

laws. 

The  writers  upon  natural  law  say  that  originally  all  things 


/ 


PUBLIC     LANDS.  If)? 

were  in  common.  Thai  primarily  and  originally  all  the  peo- 
ple who  were  upon  the  carlh  had  an  equal  undivided  right  in 
the  earth  and  the  things  that  were  upon  it.  Some  of  these 
things  were  by  nature  incapable  of  a  property  in  them,  that 
is,  of  a  dominion  and  ownership  by  one  man,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  rest ; — such  as  the  ocean,  the  air,  &:c.,  these 
must  remain  in  common.  Other  things  are  capable  of  ex- 
clusive property  in  an  individual,  as  the  earth.  The  original 
community  of  goods  in  these  things  that  were  capable  of 
ownership  would  become,  they  say,  inconvenient  as  mankind 
increased  and  society  progressed.  Under  this  condition  of 
things,  "  the  most  effectual  way,"  says  Rutherford,  **of  secur- 
ing the  peace  of  mankind  is  by  introducing  an  exclusive  pro- 
perty. *  •  *  Xhe  common  claim  which  all  men  origin- 
ally had  to  all  things  is  taken  away  by  the  introduction  of 
property  as  far  as  this  exclusive  right  extends.  *  *  *  * 
When  mankind  were  few  in  number,  and  lived  together  in 
the  same  place,  they  could  easily  meet  to  divide  their  com- 
mon stock,  and  to  assign  to  each  other  his  proper  share  by 
express  consent,  agreement,  or  compact.  But  after  their 
luunbcrs  were  increased,  and  they  were  settled  in  different 
parts  of  the  world,  very  distant  from  one  another,  it  became 
impossible  for  all  of  them  to  meet  together.  This  method 
therefore  of  introducing  property  by  express  consent  was 
rendered  impracticable.  Some  consent,  however,  has  been 
shown  to  be  necessary  to  make  the  introduction  of  property 
consistent  with  justice  ;  and  a  tacit  one  would  be  sufficient 
for  that  purpose.  Such  a  tacit  consent  is  called  occupancy. 
Indeed  occupancy  is  but  one  part  of  the  act."  The  other 
part  of  the  act,  as  stated  by  Rutherford,  is  the  consent  of 
the  rest  of  mankind,  and  this  consent  is  presumed  if  they  do 
not  assert  their  common  right  and  interfere  with  his  occu- 
pancy. 


168  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

"  Upon  llie  Avhole  then,"  says  Rutlierford,  "  property  can- 
not be  introduced  consistently  with  justice,  unless  by  the 
common  consent  of  mankind.  The  consent  which  is  neces- 
sary for  this  purpose  might  either  be  given  expressly  when 
all  mankind  could  meet  together,  and  such  agi'eement  is 
called  division  ; — or  else  it  may  be  presumed,  in  consequence 
of  the  future  proprietor  having,  without  molestation,  taken 
and  kept  possession  of  the  thing  which  he  intends  to  make 
his  own,  and  such  a  tacit  agreement  is  called  occupancy." 

"  But  though  either  division  or  occupancy  might  give  pro- 
perty in  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  when  all  the  joint  com- 
moners could  meet  together,  the  way  of  introducing  property 
by  division  is  now  at  an  end.  The  great  numbers  of  man- 
kind, and  their  remoteness  from  one  another,  have  rendered 
it  impossible  for  them  all  to  meet,  and  to  divide  the  common 
stock  of  goods,  or  such  parts  of  the  common  stock  as  have 
not  yet  been  appropriated.  There  is  therefore  at  jrresejit  7io 
other  method  left  for  beginning  j^f'operty  but  occupancy  only  ; 
all  things  which  ivere  not  appropriated  formerly,  must  now 
be  appropriated  by  occupancy  or  not  at  all.^'' — Ruth.  Ins., 
V.  1,  p.  42  to  50. 

Mr.  Locke  goes  much  farther.  He  does  not  consider  any 
consent,  express  or  tacit,  as  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  rest 
of  mankind.  But  he  places  the  right  to  property  by  occu- 
pancy, absolutely  in  the  act  of  taking  possession  and  improv- 
ing, on  the  ground  that  a  man  has  a  property  in  the  labor  of 
liis  hands  ;  and  this  labor  being  bestowed  on  an  unappro- 
priated thing,  makes  it  his  own. 

The  Indian  lands  in  this  country  are  in  the  condition  as- 
serted by  Rutherforth  of  all  lands  originally.  They  are 
held  in  common.  The  common  claim  is  not  taken  away  in 
them  by  the  introduction  of  property.  This  stage  of  things 
has  not  yet  arrived  among  the  Indians.     Under  this  condition 


/ 


PUBLIC     LANDS.  1 G9 

the  lands  arc  Iransfcrrccl  to  our  government.  Before  llicir 
transfer,  thousands  of  years  l^eforc,  the  principle  of  occu- 
pancy as  giving  a  title  to  such  common  unappropriated  lands 
has  been  established  as  a  fumlaniental  principle  in  the 
original  acquisilion  of  property.  These  lands,  therefore,  arc 
a  subject  for  the  application  of  the  principle  ;  and  they  be- 
come the  absolute  property  of  the  individual  who  occupies 
and  improves  them. 

Rutherforth  says  that  before  this  rii^ht  of  property  by  oc- 
cupancy can  attach,  it  is  necessary  the  ''  thing  seized  upon 
should  be  certain  and  determinate."''  In  the  case  of  the  pub- 
lic lands,  it  is  always  understood  to  be  a  quarter  section  of 
the  public  survey.  This  renders  it  determmate.  But  J 
would  add  one  other  condition,  and  that  is,  that  it  is  neces- 
sary also  for  the  occupant  to  pay  to  government  the  expenses 
of  the  Indian  treaty  and  the  survey.  Tliese  two  conditions 
complied  with,  and  1  believe  it  impossible  to  establish  any 
other  principle  known  to  the  doctors  upon  natural  or  politic 
law,  whereby  a  title  to  these  lands  can  be  acquired,  and 
wholly  impossible  to  show  any  fair  and  solid  argument 
against  the  equity  and  legality  of  the  title  by  occupancy, — 
or  the  propriety  of  its  application  to  the  lands  in  question. 

If  Congress,  unmindful  of  this  law,  and  treating  the  pub- 
lic lands  as  if  government  had  the  fee  in  them,  shall  continue 
obstinately  to  persist  in  the  illiberal  policy  wliich  they  have 
maintained,  and  which  is  founded  no  less  upon  ignorance  of 
facts,  than  upon  error  in  law,  the  time  will  come  when  the 
settlers  will  disregard  the  lien  of  government,  and  take  pos- 
session of  the  lands  without  refunding  the  expenses  of  the 
treaties  and  surveys. 

A  permanent  pre-emption  law  was  passed   in    September, 

1841,  by  which  the  occupants  of  the  pubhc  lands  are  secured 

in  tlieir  possessions — and  every  person  l)eing  tlie  head  of  a 

9 


170  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

family,  widow,  or  single  man,  over  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  who  has  filed  a 
declaration  under  the  naturalization  laws,  to  become  a  citi- 
zen, who  shall  make  a  settlement  on  the  public  lands  in  per- 
son, and  inhabit  and  improve  the  same  and  erect  a  dwelling- 
house  thereon,  shall  be  authorized  to  enter  a  quarter  section 
of  160  acres,  or  a  less  legal  subdivision,  at  the  Land  Office 
of  the  District. 

The  title  by  occupancy  is  thus  limited  by  the  enactment 
of  the  legislature,  which  defines  the  extent  which  the  occu- 
pancy may  cover ; — and,  at  the  same  time,  to  that  extent, 
fortifies  and  confirms  the  title. 

The  system  of  public  surveys  is  a  very  complete  admea- 
surement and  marking  of  the  whole  body  of  public  lands. 
As  soon  as  the  claim  of  the  Indian  occupants  is  extinguished, 
the  land  is  first  run  off  and  marked  in  township  lines,  which 
are  divisions  of  six  miles  square.  Afterward  the  township 
is  divided  into  sections  of  one  mile  square,  each  section  and 
quarter  section  being  marked,  by  blazing  a  tree,  as  the  tech- 
nical plu-ase  is  for  marking  it  with  an  axe  ;  or,  if  the  corner 
to  be  marked  is  in  the  prairie,  by  driving  a  stake  and  throw- 
ing up  a  sod,  marking  at  the  same  time  on  the  tree  or  the 
stake  the  number  of  the  township  and  section.  The  town- 
ships are  numbered  from  south  to  north  on  a  base  line,  and 
the  north  and  south  ranges  are  numbered  on  both  sides  of  an 
arbitrary  meridian,  east  and  west.  The  sections  are  num- 
bered, beginning  at  the  northeast  section  of  the  township  for 
number  one,  running  west,  and  alternately  east,  terminating 
with  number  thirty-six  in  the  southeast  corner.  Section 
numbered  sixteen  in  eacli  township  is  appropriated  to  schools, 
and  transferred  to  the  States  for  tliat  purpose. 

Those  lands  not  entered  under  the  pre-emption  law,  are 
offered  at  public  sale,  previous  to  wliicli  no  other  person,  not 


PUIJLU-    LANDS.  171 

having  a  pre-emptive  rii:^lil,  ran  purehasc.  After  they  have 
been  offered  at  public  sale,  tiiey  are  open  to  every  purcliaser 
at  private  sale. 

The  price  of  all  the  lands  is  fixed  at  a  uniform  minimum 
of  one  dollar  and  a  quarter  per  acre.  A  bill  is  now  before 
Congress,  providing  for  the  graduation  of  the  prices  of  those 
tliat  have  been  a  long  time  in  the  market.  The  graduation 
of  the  price  of  public  lands,  and  a  liberal  permanent  pre- 
emption law,  are  objects  of  the  greatest  importance  to  all  the 
west. 

In  the  year  ending  December  1,  1844,  6,693,368  acres  of 
new  land  were  offered  in  the  market,  beside  a  great  amount 
that  was  then  on  hand  that  had  been  previously  offered  :  of 
this  amount  1,747,158  acres  were  sold,  mostly  in  small  sub- 
divisions of  80  and  160  acres — an  excess  over  both  the 
preceduig  years.  In  1«43,  the  number  of  acres  sold  was 
1,605,264. 

There  has  been  a  great  misunderstanding  on  the  part  of 
the  executive  branch  of  the  government,  in  relation  to  the 
value  of  the  mineral  lands.  Mr.  Spencer,  when  Secretary 
of  War,  in  his  annual  report  (1843?)  stated  the  value  of  the 
mineral  reservation  in  the  lead  district  at  $50  per  acre  !  !  ! 
and  recommended  their  sale  at  an  extravagant  sum  ($20)  as 
the  minimum.  Now,  the  statement  already  made  of  the 
annual  proceeds  of  these  lands,  shows  them  to  be  of  no 
greater  value  than  farming  lands  ;  and  if  they  were  put  up 
for  sale  to-day,  at  the  mininuun  of  81,25  per  acre,  a  great 
portion  of  them  would  remain  unsold.  A  law  has  passed 
Congress  at  the  present  session  to  offer  these  lands  for  sale 
at  a  minimum  of  82,50  per  acre.  Under  this  law  ])ut  a 
small  portion  of  the  mineral  reserve  will  be  sold  to  actual 
miners,  who  know  its  value,  though  perhaps  a  good  deal  may 
be  disposed  of  to  unwise  speculators. 


172  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

The  proposition  has  sometimes  been  suggested  of  ceding 
the  pubhc  domain  to  the  States  respectively,  in  which  it  is 
included,  at  a  certain  price  per  acre  (say  50  cents,  or  what- 
ever the  net  proceeds  may  be  under  the  control  of  the  United 
States  government),  to  be  paid  on  the  receipt  of  the  proceeds 
of  sale.  The  advantages  of  this  plan  would  be,  reducing 
the  patronage  of  the  national  executive  very  considerably ; 
and  giving  to  the  State  governments  in  some  degree  the  con- 
trol of  the  lands  ;  who  would  have  power  to  modify  the 
policy  of  the  land  system  so  as  to  favor  or  retard  the  settle- 
ment of  their  own  State.  The  objections  to  it,  among  others, 
would  be  that  it  might  lead  to  collisions  between  the  State 
and  National  governments,  and  that  the  stipulated  price  (of 
50  cents  per  acre)  would  never  be  paid  to  the  United  States. 
This  last  objection  could  be  obviated  by  making  the  land 
officers  bound  to  the  United  States,  as  well  as  to  the  State, 
and  requiring  them  to  pay  its  portion  immediately  to  the 
United  States,  without  fii'st  going  into  the  State  Treasury, 
and  giving  an  action  against  them  to  the  United  States  for  its 
recovery.  Perhaps  such  provisions  would  exclude  also  the 
danger  of  collision  between  the  general  and  the  local  govern- 
ments. One  other  benefit  would  arise  from  it.  It  might  be 
managed  with  better  understanding,  and  more  economy,  by 
the  State  governments,  and  some  revenue  saved  b}^  them  for 
improvements. 

Under  such  a  plan,  moreover,  the  difficulties  attending  the 
settlement  of  conflicting  or  doubtful  claims,  would  easily  be 
overcome.  There  are  now  between  one  and  two  thousand 
cases  of  suspended  patents,  or  undecided  claims,  in  the  land 
office,  many  of  which  have  remained  so  for  years,  and  which 
never  can  be  settled  without  additional  legislation  of  Con- 
gress. The  number  of  land  officers  in  the  United  States  is 
134,  subject  to  reappointment  every  four  years,  in  the  eight 


PUBLIC    LANDS.  173 

surveying  districts,  and  sixty-tlirce  land  offices  ;  beside  sixty 
or  seventy  officers  and  clerks  in  the  City  of  Washington. 
All  this  executive  patronage  may  be  dispensed  with  by  the 
proposed  system,  except  about  a  corporal's  guard  at  Wash- 
ington. The  knowledge  that  would  be  brought  into  the 
administration  of  the  land  laws  by  the  change,  would  be  a 
great  consideration.  By  the  intimate  knowledge  which  the 
State  Governments  have  of  lliis  interest,  a  standard  for  the 
graduation  of  prices  might  be  attained,  much  more  accurate 
than  that  of  mere  time.  If  the  surveys  were  made  under 
the  authority  of  the  States,  a  farther  economy  may  be  made 
in  that  part  of  the  business,  probably.  But  if  the  surveys 
should  be  made  by  the  United  States,  the  eight  Surveyors 
General,  and  a  large  number  of  officers  at  Washington,  could 
not  be  dispensed  with. 


J" 


PART    V. 


INDIANS.— MONUMENTS. 

The  Imliaii  tribes  now  iiiliabiling  ihc  country  under  our  con- 
sideration are  the 

Chippewas,  inhabiting  the  country  toward  the  sources  of 
the  Missisippi,  above  St.  Peter's,  and  toward  Lake  Supe- 
rior.    With  a  small  band  of  less  tlian  200  inhabiting  about 

Black  River,  they  amount  to -     7,780 

The  Menominies  in  Wisconsin,  -     -     -     -     2,508 
The  New  York  Indians,    ''  _     _     .     .     3,293 

Oncidas  of  Green  Bay, 720 

Potawatamics  of  Huron, 100 

Stockbridge  of  Green  Bay, 207 

Stockbridge  and  Munsee, 388 

Dahcotahs  (Sioux), -  25,000 

Winnebagoes,     --__ 2,183 

Potawatamics, -     2,200 

44,379 

Perhaps    the    Oneidas,    Stockbridge,    and 

Stockl)ridge  and  Munsee  are  included  in  the 
New  York,  and  if  so,  they  are  repeated,  and 
there  should  be  deducted  from  the  above      -     -     1,315 

43,004 

The  whole  number  is  therefore,  in  that  case,  about  43,000. 
Of  these  the  greater  part,  the  Sioux,  Potawatamics,  and  the 


X 


176  ISOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Chippewas  of  the  Missisippi,  amounting  to  about  35,000,  are 
at  a  distance  from  the  white  settlements,  and  have  but  little 
intercourse  with  them  ;  and  about  8,000  or  9,000  are  near 
the  whites,  and  cither  reside  among  them  or  frequently  visit 
them.  The  Sauks  and  Foxes,  about  2,000,  left  this  district 
last  fall,  for  the  land  allotted  them  by  the  govenmient  south- 
west of  the  Missouri.  There  are  several  small  tribes  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Missouri  ;  and  high  up  that  stream  the 
Mandans,  Arikarees,  and  Blackfeet,  occasionally  pass  east  of 
the  river,  and  roam  over  parts  of  the  district  comprehended 
within  our  pages.     The  Blackfeet  reside  partly  within  it. 

The  early  French  travellers  to  this  region  mention  many 
tribes  who  have  now  disappeared  ;  some  of  whom  have  been 
known  in  later  times,  and  others  who  perhaps  have  not  been 
heard  of  except  through  them. — Charlevoix  names  the  Octo- 
tatas,*  othenvise  called  Mactotatas,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Missouri,  and  the  i\Ioingonas,  on  the  river  of  that  name  ;  also, 
the  Peorias,  Tamaroas,  Caokias,  Kaskaskias,  and  Mitchiga- 
meas,  who  were  tribes  of  the  Illinois  ;  Mascotins  and  the 
Saulteurs  of  St.  Marie,  whose  name  he  gives  in  theii  own 
language  as  Pauoirig^viwhac,  the  Nokets  on  Green  Bay,  the 
Ochagras,  and  the  Kickapoos,  are  frequently  named,  and  the 
Outagamis,  who  are  the  Foxes,  and  are  now  called  by  them- 
selves Muskwakas.  The  Isati  were  mentioned  as  inhabiting 
about  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  and  perhaps  have  that  name 
by  corruption  from  Saulteurs,  which  seems  also  to  have  been 
applied  to  them.  They  are  probably  the  Chippeway.  It  is 
said  by  some  that  the  name  of  the  river  Theakike  was  taken 
from  a  tribe  of  that  name.  All  the  travellers  have  spoken  of 
the  Naudoessies,  so  they  spell  it,  who  seem  to  have  been  the 
Dacotas,  the  name  applied  to  them  being  no  other  than  their 

*  They  are  called  by  others  Ottoetatas,  and  may  be  the  people  now  called 
Ottoes. 


y 


INDIANS.  177 

own  way  of  speaking  Nord-oucst,  the  name  of  description 
used  by  the  French,  ihoiigli  singularly  enough,  they  did  not 
recognize  it  in  the  Indian  change,  but  received  it  as  an  ori- 
ginal Indian  name.  It  may  easily  be  conceived  how  the 
name  became  fixed  on  them.  When  they  visited  the  French 
settlements,  as  all  the  tribes  in  this  quarter  did,  and  described 
the  place  of  their  residence,  the  French  themselves  applied 
the  w^ord  Nord-ouest,  in  reference  to  the  situation  of  their 
country.  In  their  subsequent  visits,  to  make  themselves 
known  from  the  other  numerous  tribes  who  visited  them,  they 
used  the  word  which  the  PVcnch  had  applied  to  them,  as  a 
much  more  intelligible  description  to  tlicm  than  their  proper 
name  ;  and  their  pronunciation  of  it  was  Nordouessy.  The 
term  thus  became  an  appellative,  which  the  French  mistook 
for  an  original  name. 

Tliere  was  a  tribe  also  called  Massisagua,  or  Massisakwa 
(for  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  accurately  the  Indian  sounds), 
which  is  the  name  by  which  they  call  the  prairie-rattlesnake. 
The  first  half  of  the  word  is  the  same  as  the  name  of  the 
river,  and  means,  great.  The  whole  word  may,  therefore, 
mean,  great  adder.  The  last  portion  of  it  is,  perhaps,  the  true 
name  of  the  tribe  which  we  now  call  Sak,  and  Saki.* 

The  French  make  strany-c  work  in  writuif;  an  Indian 
name.  Ottawas,  they  make  Ouctawaks  ;  Wabash,  Ouabache 
and  Ouabaskigou. 

Hennepin  puts  down  the  Tintonhas  on  the  St.  Peter's,  and 
Hancton  (Yancklon)  further  north  on  the  Missisippi. 

Lahontan  enumerates,  on  Lake  Huron,  tlie  Hurons, 
Outawas,  Nockes,  Missisaugues,  Attikamek,  Uulchipoues 
(Chippewas),  or  Sauteurs  (of  St.  Anthony).  On  Illinois 
Lake    (Lake    Michigan),    Illinois,    Oumamis,    j\Iaskoutins, 


•  See  Note  on  p.  1 18. 
9* 


178  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

Kickapous,  Outagamis,  Malominis  (Mcnominis),  Pouteouta- 
mis,  Ojatinons,*  Sakis  ;  and,  north  of  Missisippi,  Naudoessis, 
Assimpouls  (Assiniboins),  Sonkaskitons,  Atintons,  Clistinos, 
Eskimos.     To  the  west,  on  the  river  called  Long  River, 
which  is  St.  Peter's  valley,  he  mentions  the  Panimoha  (Paw- 
nee Maha),  now  on  the  Missom-i ;  Okoros,  or  Eokoros,  near 
the  mouth  of  Long  River ;  Essanapes,  sixty  leagues  further 
up  the  river  ;  and  the  Gnacsitares,  still  further  up.    He  says  : 
the  Eokoros  had  twelve  villages  and  twenty  thousand  w^ar- 
riors  ;  and  that  they  were  much  greater  before  their  recent 
wars.     He  describes  the  Mozemlek  Lidians  to  the  west,  on 
a  river  which,  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  leagues  from  his  place 
on  Long  River,  discharges  itself  into  a  great  salt  lake,  three 
hundred  leagues  in  circumference,  having  at  its  mouth   six 
large  walled  towns,  and  many  others  around  the  lake.     The 
people   around  this  lake   call   themselves  Tahuglauk.     All 
this  was  reported  to  him  by  the  Gnacsitares,  and  was,  no 
doubt,   not  correctly  understood.      The    River    Chayen-oju 
comes  from  a  salt  water  region,  to  the  north,  and  empties  into 
the  Red  River,     The  Mozemlek  may  have  lived  on  that,  or 
on  the  Red  River,  which  discharges  itself  into  Hudson's 
Bay.     The   final   syllable    of  their   name   may   have  been 
mistaken  for  lac,  the  whole  name  being  derived  from  some 
lake  in  that  vicinity.     There  is  a  band  called  Esconabe,  to 
the  north  and  east,  in  Canada,  who  may  be  the  same  as  the 
Essanape.    Both  the  Mozemlek  and  Tahuglauk  are  described 
as  wearing  beards  and  clothing.     Charlevoix  also  relates  that 
he  received  information  of  some  Indians  inhabiting  about  the 
Great  Lake  in  the  Northwest,  which  has  been  before  men- 
tioned, who  wore  buttons  on  their  clothes,  and  looked  like 
Frenchmen.     I  must  repeat  my  belief  in  the  probable  occur- 

*  This  is  spelt,  by  Charlevoix,  I  think,  Ouiatinons  (Weatinons),  and  may 
be  the  tribe  of  the  Miamis  now  called  Weas. 


INDIANS.  179 

rencc  of  some  great  convulsion  of  nature,  whicli  has 
destroyed  both  lakes  and  men,  since  that  country  was  first 
seen  by  the  whites. 

The  Wahpacootas,  a  band  of  the  Sioux,  or  Dacotas,  now 
dwell  where  Lahontan  found  the  Eokoros  ;  and,  higher  up, 
where  he  found  the  Essanapc  and  Gnacsitares,  are  the  Wa- 
petons,  another  band  of  the  same  nation.  Farther  west  are 
the  Yanctons,  and  beyond,  the  Teton,  or  Titonwan,  and 
Yanctoni,  all  bands  of  the  Sioux.  Farther  in  the  north  and 
west  are  the  Chippewas,  Assiniboins,  Blackfect,  Mandans, 
Arrikarecs,  Gros  Ventres,  and  Arripahas. 

Tlicre  are  eleven  bands  of  the  Dacotas.  Five  of  them  are 
named  in  the  last  preceding  paragraph.  The  others  are  the 
Medawckantons,  Sissetoln,  Santis,  Sioune,  Ogallala,  and 
Hunkpapa.  From  tiic  name  of  one  of  these  bands,  probably 
Sioune,  the  French  called  the  whole  Dacota  nation  Sioux. 
Formerly,  the  Assiniboins  were  a  tribe  of  the  same  nation, 
from  whom  they  separated. 

A  tribe  was  mentioned,  by  all  the  travellers,  under  the 
various  names  of  Klistinos,  Knistinos,  and  Kristinos. 

The  Illinois,  a  powerful  nation,  occupied  the  northeastern 
portion  of  the  tract  comprised  within  our  limits,  residing  on 
both  sides  of  the  Illinois  River  for  nearly  the  whole  extent 
of  the  State,  north  and  south,  and  from  tlic  Lake  to  beyond 
the  Missisip})i.  They  were  divided  into  several  bands,  under 
the  names  of  Tamaroas,  Michigamis,  Kaskaskias,  Kahokias, 
Peorias,  and  Moingonas.  Of  this  numerous  and  powerful 
nation,  the  only  rcnniant  is  a  band  of  Kaskaskias  and  Peorias, 
numbering  about  one  hundred  and  fifty.  By  long  and  bloody 
wars  with  the  Iroquois,  before  they  were  known  to  the  whites, 
the  Illinois  nation  had  become  much  reduced  and  enfeebled. 
The  cession  of  Louisiana  by  France  to  Spain  and  England, 
by  partition,  in  1763,  caused  much  dissatisfaction  among  the 


180  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

numerous  Indian  tribes,  and  eventually  led  to  wars  among 
themselves,  which  resulted,  mediately,  in  the  almost  total 
extinction  of  the  Illinois.     Pontiac,  a  celebrated  chief  of  some 
of  the  lake  tribes,  perhaps  Huron,  had  endeavored  to  stir  up 
all  the  nations  of  Northern  Louisiana  and  the  lakes  to  resist 
the  transfer  of  dominion.     He  was  afterward  murdered  by  a 
Kaskaskia  ;  and,  in  revenge  of  his  death,  his  friends  made 
w^ar  upon  the   Illinois,   Avhich    nearly  destroyed  the   latter 
nation.     Of  the  small  remnant,  a  part  were  cut  off  by  the 
Sauks,  in  the  begimiing  of  this  century.     To  the  north  of  the 
Illinois  w^ere  the  Saukis,  on  the  Wisconsin  River ;  the  Pota- 
watamis,  at  Green  Bay,   together  with  the  small  band  of 
Nokes  ;    and,   further  up  the   Fox   River,   the   Musquakis, 
called,  by  the  Chippewas,  Outagamis,  now  the  Foxes  ;  and, 
to  the  north  of  that  river,  the  Menominis,  who  remain  there 
to  this  day  ;  and,  between  there  and  Lake  Superior,  some  of 
the  Chippewa  bands.     The  Winnebagos  are  not  mentioned 
by  that  name.     Nor  do  we  hear  of  the  Dacotas,  or  of  any  of 
that  nation,  by  the  names  they  now  bear ;  but,  from  the  place 
of  residence,  it  is  probable  that  those  visited  by  Lahontan 
were  different  bands  of  this  nation. 

The  Menomini  country,  at  present  possessed  by  them,  is 
bounded  by  the  Wisconsin  River  to  the  w^est,  the  Fox  River 
south,  the  Wolf  River  to  the  east,  and  on  the  north  by  lands 
lately  ceded  by  the  Chippewas  to  the  United  States,  by  treaty 
of  1842.  The  Nokes,  at  the  earHest  mention  we  have  of 
them,  consisted  only  of  a  few  families,  scattered  here  and 
there,  but  mostly  frequenting  the  bay  of  that  name  in  the 
northwest  part  of  Green  Bay.  The  Malominis,  says  Charle- 
voix, have  a  single  village  only,  on  the  river  of  that  name. 
They  are  a  very  handsome  race,  and  the  best-rnade  of  all  the 
nations  inhabiting  Canada.  They  arc  larger  than  the  Pota- 
watamis.     I  am  assured  that  they  have  a  common  origmwith 


INDIANS.  181 

the  Noqucts  and  JSaullcrs,  and  al.so  a  language  snndar  to 
theirs.  But  they  say  that  they  have  also  a  peculiar  language 
of  their  own,  which  they  keep  to  themselves.  [Char.,  vol.  5, 
p.  430.]  Long  says  they  are  of  a  very  light  color,  and  that 
even  before  their  admixture  with  the  French,  they  were 
lighter  than  their  neighbors, — and  they  arc  often  called  the 
White  Indians. 

The  Saukies,  though  small  in  immbcr,  are  divided  into  two 
factions,  of  which  one  is  attached  to  the  Outagamis,  the  other 
to  the  Potawatamis.  [Char.,  vol.  5,  p.  432.]  When  the 
whites  fust  came  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Saukis  were  living 
in  the  country  about  its  mouth.  They  afterward  migrated  to 
the  west,  and  were  found  by  Hennepin  about  the  bend  of  the 
Wisconsin  River.  Tiiey  probably  extended  northward  to  the 
Chippeway  grounds  :  as  they  subsequently  had  a  dilFiculty 
with  that  nation,  which  resulted  in  the  removal  of  the  Sauks 
to  the  south,  and  their  establishment  on  Rock  River.  It 
appears,  however,  that  in  retiring  south  they  did  not  yield 
their  possessions  on  the  Wisconsin,  which  they  subsequently 
sold  to  the  United  States.  The  contest  by  which  they  were 
driven  from  the  Wisconsin  to  the  Rock  River  may  have  been 
about  the  time  of  our  revolution,  as  Long  and  Maj.  Marston 
agree  that  they  came  to  the  latter  place  at  about  that  period. 
Here  a  portion  of  them  resided  at  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  of  1812,  and  still  remained  till  the  Black  Hawk  war  in 
1832.  A  part  of  the  tribe  left  the  Rock  River  settlement 
about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  took  up  their 
residence  on  the  Missouri,  where  they  have  since  remained. 
Some  of  them  have  been  mixed  with  the  Potawatamis.  And 
the  Shawnces  are  descendants  of  a  seceding  band  of  Sacs. 
The  main  body,  formerly  numbering  about  live  or  six  thou- 
sand, gave  up  their  Rock  River  lands  to  the  whites,  and 
removed  west  of  the  Missisippi,  which  cession  was  the  cause 


V 


182  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 


of  the  Black  Hawk  war.  They  resided  betw^een  the  two 
rivers  till  the  last  fall  (1845),  when,  according  to  their  treaty 
of  1842,  they  removed  west  of  the  Missouri. 

Mr.  Schoolcraft  gives  the  following  sketch  of  the  contest 
with  the  Chippewas,  by  which  they  were  compelled  to  retire 

south  : 

"  The  St.  Croix  River,  at  the  falls  (says  Mr.  Schoolcraft), 
is  the  battle-ground  of  Wahbojeeg,  a  celebrated  Chippeway 
war  chief  of  the  last  century,  and  testifies  to  an  event  in  In- 
dian tradition.     Like  most  of  the  incidents  in  Indian  warfare 
in  this  region,  it  is  connected  with  the  restless  spirit,  en-atic 
adventure  and  ambitious  daring  of  the   tribes  who  are  this 
season  (1832)  arrayed  in  hostility  to  the  settlements  on  the 
Wisconsin.     It  is  one  of  the  links  of  the  curious  train   of 
history  of  the  Sauk  and  Fox  tribes  w4io  have  fought  their 
way  from  the  St.  Lawrence   thus  far  across  the  continent, 
and  been   successively   embroiled  with  each  of  the   white 
powers^  and  perhaps  with  some   exceptions  with  each  of  the 
Indian  tribes  of  the  north.     They   appear  by  their  language 
and  traditions  to  be  Algonquins,  and  may  be  traced,  as  a 
starting  point,  to   the  north  shores  of  Lake  Ontario.     They 
appear  to  have  been  driven  thence  for  perfidy.     They  lived 
long  at,  and  gave  the  name  to  Saganaw.     They  went  to  the 
Fox  River  of  Green  Bay,  which  is  named  after  them,  and 
here  embroiled  themselves  with  the  Menomoncs,  the  Chippe- 
was and  the  French.*     They  were  finally  driven  thence  by 
force  of  arms.     They  fled  to  the  Wisconsin,  where  Carver 

*  It  does  not  appear  on  what  authority  Mr.  Schoolcraft  gives  the  above 
relation.  The  character  of  the  Sauks  or  Musquakas  is  not  perfidious.  It 
is  true  that  the  Sauks,  if  not  the  Foxes,  came  from  the  lower  St.  Law 
rence,  below  the  lake  But  when  the  first  French  visited  Green  Bay, 
prior  to  1700,  they  found  there  the  Outagamis  or  Foxes,  and  at  the  portage 
the  Sauks.  The  union  of  the  two  bands  more  probably  occurred  there, 
after  a  contest  between  them  for  possession  of  the  country. 


INDIANS.  183 

speaks  of  their  villages  in  1766  ;  tliencc  to  their  recent  resi- 
dence on  Rock  River,  and  by  tlie  last  tragic  act  in  their  his- 
tory, are  confined  to  a  limit  commencing  west  of  the  Missi- 
sippi.  We  speak  of  the  Sauks  and  Foxes  as  connected  in 
the  ganntlct-likc  warfare  they  have  maintained  ;  for  they 
appear  to  have  been  intimate  allies  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  Indian  name  of  the  one  tribe  signifies  those  who  went 
out  of  the  land*  (osaukee),  and  the  other  Redearths  (Mus- 
kwakec),  known  by  the  nom  dc  guerre  of  Foxes. 

"  While  resident  at  Green  Bay  they  occupied  also  Lac  du 
Flambeau,  and  extended  themselves  to  Lake  Superior,  and 
southwest  of  its  shores,  to  the  Sauk  and  Little  Sauk  Rivers 
above  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  While  thus  located  they 
seem  to  have  fallen  out  with  the  Chippewas,  and  leagued 
with  the  Sioux,  whom  they  have  of  late  so  strenuously 
fought.  With  the  aid  of  the  latter,  at  first  covertly  given, 
they  maintained  the  possession  of  the  rice  lakes  and  mid- 
land hunting  grounds.  But  they  were  finally  overthrown  in 
a  general  defeat  at  these  falls  by  the  combined  Chippewa 
bands  of  Lake  Superior.  The  latter  came  down  the  St. 
Croix  by  its  Namakagon  branch.  They  were  led  by  Wah- 
bojeeg.  Tlicir  spies  reached  the  falls  without  having  en- 
countered an  enemy,  but  they  unexpectedly  found  the  Foxes 
(whom  they  called  Ootaighamees),  with  their  allies,  encamped 

*Mr.  Schoolcraft  is  probably  nearly  right  in  the  etymology  of  the  names 
Sauki  and  Musquakie.  In  a  note  to  the  relation  furnished  by  Maj.  Mars- 
ton,  at  the  end  of  Dr.  Morse's  Report  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  it  is  said, 
that  Saukie  means  red  bank,  and  Musijuakie  yellow  bank, — undoubtedly 
an  error.  Kebesaukie  is  the  name  for  peninsula.  The  last  half  of  the 
word  therefore  probably  corresponds  with  the  last  half  of  pcnin.sula,  and 
means  island,  which  is  "  out  of  the  land"  or  a  place  in  the  water,  given 
to  them  probably  because  of  an  insular  residence  at  some  time  in  their 
history.  This  was  my  own  idea  of  the  etymology  of  the  name  before  I 
saw  Mr.  Schoolcraft's  version.  Mus  mean  red, — and  he  may  be  right  in 
the  derivation  of  Muscjuakie. 


184  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

at  the  Other  end  of  the  portage.  A  partial  action  ensued. 
It  was  rendered  general  by  the  arrival  of  the  whole  Chip- 
pewa force.  It  was  a  fierce  and  bloody  action.  The  Foxes 
made  a  resolute  stand.  But  they  were  overpowered  and 
fled  ;  and  they  have  not  since  reappeared  in  that  region. 
Amono;  the  slain  several  Sioux  were  found  ;  and  this  is  said 
to  be  the  first  actual  testimony  of  the  Sioux  being  leagued 
with  them  in  the  war  against  the  Chippewas.  But  this  as- 
sertion is  hardly  reconcileable  with  the  date  of  the  war  in 
other  places.  Wahbojeeg  or  the  White  Fisher,  who  is 
noticed  as  the  leader  on  this  occasion,  is  said  to  have  led  out 
seven  other  expeditions  against  the  Foxes  and  Sioux.  He 
died  at  Chegoimegon,  in  Lake  Superior,  in  1793." 

The  Sauks  and  Foxes  took  no  part  in  the  war  of  1812. 
A  body  of  them  left  their  place  on  Rock  River,  and  went  to 
the  Lake  and  offered  their  serv^ices  to  the  British.  But  tak- 
ing disgust  at  the  atrocities  of  some  of  the  allies  practised 
upon  the  Americans,  they  soon  returned  to  their  village,  and 
remained  inactive  during  the  war. 

They  are  generally  a  tall,  well-made  people,  with  faces 
expressive  of  more  intellect  than  w^ould  be  found  in  an  equal 
number  of  whites  taken  by  chance,  even  with  the  advan- 
tages which  the  latter  possess  in  education.  In  character 
and  manners  they  are  very  respectable  and  dignified.  Brave, 
pacific,  hospitable,  honest  and  generous  ;  the  condition  of 
civilisation,  the  habit  of  industry  and  the  discipline  of  educa- 
tion, would  make  them  equal  to  the  best  men  in  any  countiy. 
Their  ideas  of  the  social  duties  are  very  good ;  and  it  is  the 
custom  for  one  of  their  principal  men  to  go  through  the  vil- 
lage daily,  at  sunrise,  exhorting  all  to  do  good.  Wennebca, 
who  accompanied  Maj.  Long,  was  a  Sauk  of  a  reflecting  and 
judicious  mind,  and  of  a  moral  disposition. 

Major  Long  says,  with   a  view   to  ascertain  what   were 


INDIANS.  185 

their  (llic  JSauk)  ideas  t)f  moral  excellence,  we  asked  Weii- 
nebea  what,  in  their  opinion,  constituted  a  good  man.  He 
immediately  replied,  that,  "  in  order  to  be  entitled  to  this 
appellation  an  Indian  ought  to  be  mild  in  his  manners,  affable 
to  all,  and  particularly  so  to  his  squaw.  J  lis  hospitality 
ought  to  be  boundless.  His  cabin,  as  well  as  all  that  he  can 
procure,  should  be  at  the  disposal  of  any  one  who  visits  him. 
Should  he  receive  presents,  he  ought  to  divide  them  among 
the  young  men  of  his  tribe,  reserving  no  share  for  himself. 
But  what  he  chielly  considered  as  characteristic  of  a  good 
man,  was  to  be  mild  and  not  quarrelsome  when  intoxicated. 


*'  It  is  the  duty  of  a  good  Indian  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the 
Master  of  Life.  The  business  of  men  consists  in  hunting, 
fighting,  building  their  lodges,  digging  their  canoes,  taking 
care  of  their  horses,  making  wooden  spoons,  &c.  ;  while  it 
is  tlie  duty  of  the  women  to  hew  wood,  to  carry  water,  to 
plant  and  raise  corn,  to  take  care  of  their  families,  and,  in  the 
absence  of  the  men,  they  must  attend  to  their  horses,  build 
their  lodges,  &c.  Man's  chief  and  best  occupation  is  hunt- 
ing. He  will  never  fight  unless  aggrieved  by  his  enemies, 
in  which  case  it  becomes  his  duty  to  resent  the  injury.  A 
good  hunter  is  held  in  high  esteem,  and  will  obtain  as  many 
wives  as  he  chooses,  because  they  know  that  he  can  support 
them,  but  the  good  warrior  is  esteemed  the  first  man  in  the 
nation. 

"  A  woman,  in  order  to  deserve  the  appellation  of  good, 
ought  to  be  endued  with  most  of  the  qualities  which  consti- 
tute virtue  among  civilized  females.  To  be  obedient  and 
affectionate  to  her  husband  is  her  first  duty.  Kind  to  all  her 
children,  partial  to  none  :  affable  and  courteous  to  all  men, 
avoiding  however  the  appearance  ul  familiarity  with  any. 
Her  chastity  should  be  inviolate,  even  at  the  risk  of  death. 


186  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

She  ought  to  be  industrious,  in  order  that  her  husband  may 

be  wealthy,  and  able  to  extend  his  hospitality  widely. 
*  *  *  *  * 

*'  Wennebea  thought  that  when  the  Master  of  Life  made  the 
white  man,  he  gave  him  the  power  to  improve  in  knowledge 
and  the  arts  :  he  taught  him  how  to  manufacture  all  the  arti- 
cles that  he  wanted,  such  as  cloth,  guns,  &c.  To  the  red 
man  he  gave  nothing  but  his  bow  and  his  dog,  intending  him 
therefore  for  no  other  occupation  than  that  of  hunting. 

"  This  appeared  to  be  a  favorite  idea  with  Wemiebea,  and 
from  it  he  drew  the  inference  that  the  red  man  w^as  predes- 
tined to  remain  stationary,  and  to  live  by  hunting. 

"  There  is  probably  a  similar  system  of  ethics  to  that  above 
explained  by  Wennebea,  adopted  by  most  of  the  red  nations 
in  the  valley  ,  though  there  is  a  diversity  of  national  traits  ; 
and  the  habits  and  conduct  of  all  may  not  conform  equally 
well  w4th  the  standard  fixed  by  their  principles.  There  is 
also,  of  course,  every  shade  of  individual  character,  as  among 
the  whites.  It  is  very  common  for  white  men  who  go  among 
the  Indians,  or  meet  with  them,  to  judge  of  the  character  of 
the  tribe  or  nation  from  the  character  or  act  of  an  individual ; 
and  the  traveller  who  loses  any  of  his  chattels  among  a  com- 
pany of  red  men,  reports  the  nation  to  which  they  belong  as 
a  nation  of  thieves.  That  is  as  sensible  and  just  as  if  a 
party  of  Indians  on  a  visit  to  Washington,  or  New  York, 
should  be  robbed  of  some  article,  and  upon  that  circumstance 
should  say  that  the  Americans  were  a  nation  of  thieves. 

"  The  red  man  has  usually  a  great  deal  of  sagacity,  shrewd- 
ness, cunning,  and  practical  wisdom,  in  part  resulting  from 
his  want  of  education.  The  same  thing  is  observable  from 
the  same  cause  in  the  white  man.  Those  who  study  men 
instead  of  books,  acquire  a  greater  sagacity  than  those  who 
read  much,  for  the  reason  that  they  who  devote  their  time  to 


INDIANS.  187 

books,  liavc  tlic  less  for  ol36cr\'ation  of  men  ; — and  those  who 
meddle  not  witii  books,  liave  no  object  upon  whicli  to  direct 
their  observation  but  men,  apart  from  their  attention  to  their 
particular  art  or  pursuit. 

"  Early  in  the  18tli  century  a  French  trader,  wlio  went  out 
to  the  country  of  the  Missouris,  made  them  acquainted  witli 
fire-arms,  and  sold  them  gunpowder  and  muskets.  Willi 
these  new  weapons  tlieir  success  in  hunting  was  greatly 
increased,  and  tlicy  obtained  })l(3iily  of  game  and  much  fur. 
Another  trader  went  to  them  afterward  with  gunpowder,  but 
the  Indians  being  supplied  did  not  wish  to  purchase.  The 
trader  invented  a  plan  to  sell  liis  stock  to  them.  The  Indians 
inquired  how  powder  was  made  in  France.  He  made  them 
believe  that  it  was  sown  in  grounds  similar  to  their  prairies, 
and  that  they  had  crops  of  it,  as  of  some  grain  which  was 
known  to  the  Indians.  The  Missouris  were  pleased  with 
the  discovery,  and  sowed  their  gunpowder,  and  were  obliged 
to  buy  of  the  Frenchman  all  he  had,  to  make  up  their  supply 
for  huntinfT.  The  trader  did  not  remain  till  liarvest :  but  the 
Indians  soon  found  out  the  trick.  Fearing  to  return  himself, 
the  Frenchman  sent  his  partner  out  with  goods  to  trade  with 
the  same  people,  as  the  profits  of  this  traffic  were  too  great 
to  be  abandoned.  The  Indians  found  out  that  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  the  one  who  had  duped  them.  They  gave  him 
the  public  hut  in  the  middle  of  the  village  to  deposit  his 
goods  in,  and  when  they  were  all  opened  and  unpacked  the 
Missouris  came,  and  those  who  had  bought  gunpowder  of  his 
partner  took  some  of  his  goods  ;  and  the  Frenchman  found 
himself  soon  relieved  of  his  stock  in  trade,  but  without  re- 
ceiving an  equivalent.  He  complained  to  the  chief,  who  told 
him  with  great  gi'avity  and  dignity  that  he  shoukl  have  jus- 
tice done  to  him,  but  for  that  purpose  he  must  wait  for  the 
gunpowder  harvest ;  that  his  subjects  had  no  means  at  pre- 


188  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

sent  of  paying,  but  tliat  after  that  harvest  was  over,  he  might 
rely  upon  the  word  of  a  chief,  he  would  order  a  general  hunt, 
and  that  the  skins  that  should  be  taken,  should  be  used  to 
pay  him  for  his  goods,  and  for  the  important  secret  his  part- 
ner had  communicated  to  them."     [Bossu,  i.,  146,  et  seq.] 

The  Dahcotahs  are  the  most  numerous,  powerful,  and 
warlike  people  east  of  the  mountains,  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States,  except  a  nation  called  Pagans,  who  exceed 
them  in  numbers,  but  do  not  equal  them  in  spirit  and  military 
power.  They  seem  to  have  been  at  all  times  ready  to  lend 
their  arm  and  draw  a  bow  for  other  tribes,  not  as  Swiss,  nor 
requiring  aid  in  return,  but  from  a  love  of  war.  We  find 
them  going  in  aid  of  the  Foxes  to  the  attack  on  the  Missiga- 
mis,  about  600  or  700  miles  ;  and  again,  a  few  years  subse- 
quent, taking  part  with  the  Sakis  in  that  war  with  the  Chip- 
pewas,  when  Wahbojeeg  compelled  them  to  leave  their 
residence  on  the  Fox  and  fix  their  wekeab  on  Rock  River. 
They  are  the  dread  of  all  their  weaker  neighbors.  They 
have,  at  several  times  within  a  few  years,  been  embroiled 
with  the  Chippewas,  the  Poles  of  the  north,  whose  Avont  is 
to  stand,  without  regard  to  odds,  and  to  fall  every  man  on  his 
track,  rather  than  to  fly.  Besides  the  Chippewas  they  have, 
within  a  few  years,  had  a  difliculty  with  the  Saukies,  and 
they  are  now  in  hostility  with  the  Potawatamis,  Ottocs, 
Omalias  and  Pawnees. 

The  Chippewas,  small  in  person,  and  of  a  quiet  and  meek 
aspect,  have  an  indomitable  spirit,  and  a  prowess  that  shrinks 
from  no  encounter.  They  are  greatly  inferior  in  numbers  to 
their  neighbors,  the  Dahcotahs,  and  are  moreover  disunited 
and  scattered,  a  part  of  them  being  joined  to  the  Ottawas, 
and  living  east  of  Lake  Michigan  :  that  part  within  our 
limits  being  less  tlian  8000. 

The  Winnebagoes,  called  by  themselves  Oshungulas,  ac- 


INDIANS.  189 

cording  to  Maj.  Marston,  are  poor,  indolent,  and  fdthy  in  tlicir 
persons.  They  have  the  lialred  of  their  wliilc  neighbors, 
who  suspect  them  of  taking  llieir  hogs,  and,  whether  with 
or  without  cause,  have  fixed  upon  them  the  imputation  of 
pilfering.  They  are  on  very  good  terms  with  the  Dahcotahs, 
and  of  course  fear  not  to  be  drawn  into  a  quarrel  with  any  of 
their  neighbors. 

The  Potawatamis,  though  living  at  a  distance  from  the 
whites,  have  less  of  the  Indian  characteristic  than  most  of  the 
other  tribes.  They  are  peaceably  disposed,  domestic  in  their 
habits,  and  some  of  them  clothe  themselves  in  the  manner 
of  the  whites,  especially  the  half-breeds. 

The  lowas  formerly  inhabited  a  part  of  the  country  between 
th^s  two  rivers.  They  have  now  gone  over  the  Missouri. 
They  call  themselves,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Marston  and  others, 
I-ho-wa.  They  have  a  bad  character.  To  questions  put  by 
Maj.  Marston  to  the  Sauks  and  Foxes,  they  answered  that 
they  were  in  alliance  with  the  lowas  ;  stating,  as  a  reason  for 
it,  that  they  were  a  bad  people,  and  it  was  better  to  have  their 
friendship  than  their  enmity.  The  answer  shows  that  the 
Sauks  are,  in  their  politics  at  least,  very  mucli  like  some 
other  politicians  that  we  know  of. 

In  the  Indian  character  generally  there  is  the  like  diversity 
as  among  the  whites.  There  are,  however,  some  traits  that 
are  prevalent  not  only  in  tribes  and  nations,  but  which  appear 
to  belong  to  the  red  man  wherever  he  is  found,  from  the 
mouth  of  tlie  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from 
the  Gulf  to  lat.  49°.  I  believe  it  is  connnon  to  them  all  to 
make  the  performance  of  their  promise  depentl  upon  con- 
venience and  interest.  This  may  be  regarded  as  an  Indian 
trait:  though  there  are  many  of  them  who  arc  Aiithful  to  their 
promises,  under  all  circumstances,  even  to  death. 

The  stories  of  Winona  and  of  Ampato  Sapa  show  that  the 


190  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

female  is  capable  of  the  heroism  of  love,  of  constancy,  to 
death,  and  of  a  nature  sensitive  in  extreme. 

The  history  of  former  days,  and  occurrences  of  recent  date, 
show  that  the  warrior  is  possessed  not  onl}"  of  animal  courage, 
but  of  the  truest  heroism,  and  fortitude  almost  superhuman. 
The  deeds  that  are  related  of  Pontiac,  the  descent  of  the 
allied  Sioux,  Sakis,  and  others,  upon  the  Illinois  in  1752,  and 
the  contest  of  the  Chippewas  with  the  Saukis,  and  other 
events  of  past  time  in  the  Indian  annals,  show  that  they  have 
not  been  surpassed  in  bravery  by  warriors  of  more  enlighten- 
ed nations.  And  the  instances  of  recent  occurrence  show 
that  the  spirit  of  former  days  still  lives  with  them. 

Three  years  since  a  small  party  of  sixteen  Delawares  and 
one  Potawatami  were  hunting  on  the  neutral  ground  between 
the  Missisippi  and  Missouri.  When  they  were  about  leaving 
their  camp  one  morning,  they  were  fired  upon  by  a  large  party 
of  Sioux,  and  some  of  their  number  wounded.  Thev  told  the 
Potawatami  to  make  his  escape  if  he  chose,  but  that  they 
intended  to  fight  by  their  wounded  men,  as  long  as  one  re- 
mained alive.  They  did  so,  and  only  the  Potawatami  es- 
caped to  tell  the  story. 

More  recently,  a  party  of  fifteen,  of  the  same  tribe,  who 
were  trapping  otter  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Kansas,  were 
attacked  by  a  large  party  of  Sioux  and  Chiens.  The  Dela- 
wares stood  their  around  until  the  last  man  was  killed.  Thev 
are,  says  the  Superintendent,  the  bravest  of  the  brave.  With 
this  excess  of  courage,  they  are  extremely  forbearing,  slow 
to  resentment,  and  acting  generally  on  the  defensive. 

Mr.  Schoolcraft,  speaking  of  the  Indians  of  Cass  Lake, 
says  the  Indians  approached  in  their  canoes  in  a  body,  with 
a  welcome,  which  could  hardly  have  been  more  cordial  had 
we  been  old  friends.  They  represented  their  residence  to  be 
on  a  large  island  bearing  southwest  from  the  entrance  (Col- 


INDIANS.  191 

caspi,  or  Grand  Island).  On  appioacliing  it  a  number  of 
Indians  were  observed  runninir  across  an  elevation  and  point- 
ing to  a  bay  beyond.  It  was  tlie  best  place  of  landing.  They 
were  assiduous  in  directing  the  men  to  the  spot.  They 
ranged  themselves  along  the  shore,  iircd  a  salute,  and  then 
came  eagerly  to  the  water's  edge,  giving  each  one  a  hand  as 
he  aliirhted  from  the  canoe.  He  who  has  formed  his  estimate 
of  an  Indian  from  the  reading  of  books,  in  which  he  is  de- 
picted as  cruel  and  morose,  without  any  insight  into  his 
social  character,  need  only  to  be  ushered  into  a  scene  like 
this  to  be  convinced  that  he  has  contemplated  an  overshadow- 
ed picture.  We  found  tliese  Indians  to  be  frank,  cheerful, 
and  confidins^. 

The  present  condition  of  the  Indians  in  this  region  is  very 
favorable.  They  have  generally  lands  of  most  exuberant 
fertility,  have  farmers  and  blacksmiths  residing  among  them 
by  appointment  of  government,  receive  large  annuities  of 
money  and  goods,  and  have  schools  and  religious  instruction 
also  provided  at  the  expense  of  the  government.  Some  of 
them  cultivate  the  land,  and  arc  beginning  to  evince  a  taste  for 
the  arts  and  condition  of  civilized  life.  The  Stockbridges 
and  Brothcrtowns,  living  near  Lake  Michigan,  have  been  na- 
turalized, and  become  citizens  of  the  United  States.  The 
Oneidas  are  improving  their  condition.  Many  of  them  are 
good  farmers,  and  possess  the  comforts  of  civilized  life. 
They  attend  church.  The  Chippeways,  Dahcotahs,  and 
Winnebagoes  have  schools.  The  Pottavvatamies  and  Meno- 
minies  are  without  any.  The  Sauks  also  had  a  provision  for 
schools  in  their  treaty  of  1832.  The  government  have  also, 
in  some  of  the  treaties,  stipulated  for  tlie  establishment  of 
mills,  and  these  are  maintained  in  some  of  the  tribes,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  farms  and  blacksmiths.  Annual  reports  arc 
made  to  the  government  by  the  agents,  of  the  numbers  and 


192  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

condition  of  the  Indians,  accompanied  by  statements  of  the 
teachers,  wliich  show  great  numbers  of  the  children  are  in 
attendance  on  school,  and  derive  much  advantage  from  it. 

The  condition  of  the  Indians  would  no  doubt  be  much  im- 
proved if  the  operation  of  the  laws  were  well  understood,  and 
their  influence  upon  the  circumstances  and  upon  the  disposi- 
tion and  character  of  the  Indian  were  appreciated  by  those 
having  the  power  to  change  them.  But  unfortunately,  those 
who  see  them,  if  they  are  disinterested,  are  without  the  power 
to  remedy  them.  If  one  not  bearing  official  relations  to  the 
government  or  the  Indians,  should  ojffer  his  counsel  and  com- 
municate his  knowledge  to  the  proper  department,  it  would 
not  be  well  received  ;  and  even  if  the  Superintendents  sug- 
gest any  change,  the  evils  that  are  described  are  not  perfectly 
understood  by  persons  whose  lives  have  been  always  passed 
at  a  distance.  It  is  as  difficult  to  make  such  comprehend  the 
condition  of  matters  among  the  Indians,  as  it  is  to  make  a 
foreigner  fully  understand  in  a  few  words  the  working  of  our 
political  system.  A  few  men  who  understand  them,  it  is 
true,  do  get  into  Congress,  but  all  attempts  to  set  matters 
right,  if  made,  are  overpowered  by  the  great  majority  who  do 
not  understand  them,  and  who  cannot  be  made  to  understand 
them  by  the  discussion  had  upon  them  on  the  floors  of  the 
capitol.  The  same  difficulty  is  in  the  way  of  a  proper  dis- 
position of  the  public  lands.  A  Secretary  of  War,  some  three 
or  four  years  since,  recommended  that  the  mineral  reserves 
should  be  sold  at  a  minimum  of  $20  per  acre ;  while 
those  acquainted  with  them  well  knew  that  if  oflered  at  $1 .25, 
the  great  body  of  them  would  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
government.  This  defect  of  a  practical  knowledge  in  those 
who  are  called  to  shape  the  laws,  has  been  the  cause  of  a 
ten  years'  war  in  Congress,  against  a  permanent  pre-emp- 
tion system,  and  a  graduation  of  prices.     The  discussion 


INDIANS.  193 

upon  those  mailers  alone  lias  cost  the  people  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars,  beside  a  large  probable  loss  of  moneys 
tliat  would  liavc  been  received  into  the  treasury  if  they  had 
been  adopted  ;  and  at  the  same  time  injustice  and  wrong  has 
been  suffered  by  the  settlor,  and  the  business  of  the  Land 
Office  uselessly  increased  by  the  examination  of  conflicting 
claims. 

So  long  as  a  few  traders  control  the  intercourse  and  mono- 
polize the  trade  with  the  Indians,  and  the  laws  are  shaped  so 
as  to  favor  their  designs  and  interests,  the  red  man  must,  of 
course,  suffer  wrong  and  injustice,  in  every  shape  which 
avarice  can  suggest,  and  cunning  devise,  for  enriching  the 
trader  at  the  expense  of  his  less  adroit  customer. 

We  are  not  of  those  who  clamor  against  our  own  govem- 
ment,  and  slander  our  own  wortli}'^  fathers,  for  an  imagined 
ill-treatment  and  oppression  of  the  red  man,  which  a  morbid 
sensibility  only,  not  a  discerning  judgment,  may  perceive. 
There  is  neither  fraud  nor  oppression  in  purchasing  the 
Indian  lands  for  a  full  value  and  more  than  any  neighboring 
tribe  would  give  him.  Neither  is  he  injured  by  removing 
him  from  the  society  of  the  white  man  to  those  scenes  that 
are  congenial  to  his  nature,  and  where  he  may  freely  enjoy 
those  pursuits  which  he  fondly  imagines  will  make  the  hea- 
ven of  ih'^  good  Indian.  But,  under  the  laws  regulating 
trade  and  intercourse  with  him,  the  red  man  suffers  injury, 
not  from  the  govenimenl,  but  from  the  traders. 

It  is   a  matter  of  some   importance,   in  a  state   of  war 

between    the    United     States    and     any     foreign     nation, 

that    care  should  be  taken   to  cultivate  a  good   disposition 

among  the  Indians  on  our  borders,  that  our  relations  with 

them  should  be  pacific.      To  ensure  this,  two  things  are 

especially  to  be  regarded,  viz.:  That  our  laws  controlling  our 

Indian  relations  be  calculated  to  benefit  and  give  satisfaction 

10 


194  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

to  them  ;  and  that  the  force  of  agents  be  increased.  The  laws 
at  present  existing,  governing  the  trade  with  the  Indians,  are 
void  of  that  wisdom  and  justice  which  is  necessary  to  con- 
vince the  Indian  of  the  kind  dispositions  of  our  government. 
I  will  refer  here  to  one  prominent  feature  of  them.  It  is  that 
which  destroys  competition.  Monopoly  is  always  odious — 
odious  to  the  buying  class,  because,  destroying  competition, 
it  enables  the  seller  to  have  his  own  price  for  his  goods  ;  and 
odious  and  unjust  to  all  other  persons,  because  it  violates  that 
first  principle  in  a  free  government,  that  the  citizen  is  not  to 
be  restricted  of  his  natural  rights  and  liberties  farther  than  is 
necessary  for  the  good  of  the  whole  community.  There  is 
nothing  in  which  the  violation  of  this  principle  is  more  prac- 
tically oppressive  than  in  the  restraint  of  trade.  Trade  is  a 
natural  right,  in  which  no  man  should  be  restricted  but  for  a 
great  and  palpable  public  good.  But  in  no  other  direction  or 
department  of  trade  is  the  principle  so  thoroughly  odious,  so 
oppressive,  and  so  likely  to  lead  to  results  burdensome  to  the 
government,  and  dangerous  to  the  citizen,  as  in  the  Indian 
trade.  Tlie  Indian  shows  not  his  inferiority  to  the  white 
man  so  much  in  anything  as  in  the  arts  of  trade.  Even 
under  the  circumstances  most  favorable  to  the  Indian,  he  will 
be  generally  overreached  by  the  white  man.  Monopoly 
places  him  completely  in  his  power ;  free  and  open  competi- 
tion compels  the  trader  to  be  more  moderate  in  his  exactions, 
and  to  relax  somewhat  of  the  horse-leech  appetite  which  he 
IS  at  liberty  to  indulge  when  his  avarice  has  full  play,  and 
which  constantly  grows  with  what  it  feeds  on.  There  are 
two  plans  of  obviating  the  ill  effects  of  this  system  of  mono- 
poly. The  first  has  been  suggested  :  a  free  and  hcaltliy 
competition. .  The  other  is,  the  establishment  of  factories  by 
government,  and  the  sale  of  goods  on.  government  account,  at 
regulated  prices  and  moderate  profits.     This  last  mode,  as  a 


INDIANS.  195 

matter  of  revenue,  is  not  to  ])c  overlooked  ;  as,  with  tlie  most 
moderate  profits,  it  niijrht  be  made  to  pay  the  expenses  of  our 
Indian  agencies.  The  impositions  of  trade  arc,  perhaps,  the 
most  felt  of  all  the  oppressions  to  which  the  Indian  is  sub- 
ject. It  is  one  of  which  advantage  can  be  taken  both  by  the 
alien  enemies  of  our  government,  and  by  citizens  who  feel 
aggrieved  in  being  cut  off  from  a  lucrative  pursuit  to  which 
they  feel  they  have  a  right ;  and  by  means  of  which  the 
Indian  may  be  stirred  up  to  acts  of  hostility  against  our  people. 

Another  evil  of  the  present  system  is  drunkenness.  Mr. 
D.  Jones,  Indian  Agent  at  Green  Bay,  says,  in  his  last  report 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  : — "  I  respectfully  call 
your  attention  to  a  subject  I  submitted  in  my  last  annual 
report,  and  of  which  I  still  entertain  a  favorable  opinion.  I 
mean  a  S3'^stem  of  suttling  for  the  Indians  similar  to  that  of  the 
army.  If  such  a  system  were  established,  it  would  not  only 
prevent,  in  a  great  measure,  the  introduction  of  whiskey 
among  them,  besides  furnishing  all  their  wants  at  reasonable 
prices,  but  would  also  do  away  with  tlic  aiumal  collection  of 
large  sums  of  money,  taken  from  the  Indians  at  every  pay- 
ment, by  the  traders  for  whiskey.  I  am  satisfied  that  at 
least  one  quarter  of  the  annuity  paid  to  the  Menominis  is  col- 
lected by  traders,  at  the  annuity  payment,  for  whiskey." 

Governor  Chambers,  in  his  last  report,  says  : — "  I  have 
heretofore  taken  the  liberty,  in  my  annual  reports,  to  express 
the  opinion  that  our  system  of  trade  and  intercourse  with  the 
Indian  tribes  is,  in  this  region  of  country,  rapidly  destroying 
them  ;  and  I  repeat  that  they  arc  the  victims  of  fraud  and 
intemperance,  superinduced  by  the  large  sums  of  money  paid 
them  annually  by  the  government,  without  proper  guards  to 
protect  against  the  superior  cunning  and  avarice  of  unprinci- 
pled white  men.  The  dictates  of  humanity,  apart  from  con- 
siderations of  sound  policy,  demand  from  the  national  legisla- 


196  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

turc  an  investigation  of  the  abuses  practised  under  the  present 
system,  and,  as  I  beUeve,  a  radical  change  of  it." 

Pontiac  has  already  been  mentioned,  and  the  part  he  took 
in  opposition  to  the  transfer  of  the  dominion  of  the  Illinois 
country  from  the  French  to  the  English.  He  was  born  about 
the  begmning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  died  a  few  years 
after  that  exchange  of  masters,  about  the  year  1767,  killed, 
it  is  said,  by  a  blow  from  a  Kaskaskia.  He  seems  to  have 
been  possessed  of  a  great  degree  of  bravery  and  cruelty,  if 
the  deeds  of  his  savage  forces  and  allies  were  countenanced 
by  him.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an  Ottawa,  though  this  is 
not  certain.  By  some  he  is  called  a  Huron,  others  say 
a  Sauk.  He  belonged  to  some  of  the  tribes  about  Lake 
Michigan,  but  further  I  have  not  seen  an  authentic  statement. 
He  appears  to  have  had  great  influence  with  all  the  tribes  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Lake,  Ottawa,  Huron,  Miami,  and 
others,  though  his  power  failed  to  induce  them  to  take  up  the 
tomahawk  to  resist  the  English  domination.  His  hatred  to 
the  English  seems  to  have  been  instinctive  and  invincible. 
His  designs  were  great,  and  his  energy  and  boldness  sufficient 
for  all  occasions.  He  was  not  without  that  very  frequent 
accompaniment  of  Lidian  character,  treachery.  A  hundred 
men  possess  the  qualities,  where  one  acquires  the  character, 
of  a  hero.  It  is  necessary  that  accident  and  circumstance 
concur  to  bring  the  qualities  to  the  observation  of  the  world. 
Pontiac  was  favored  in  this  respect.  The  nations  of  red 
men  in  that  quarter  had  not  lived  in  harmony  the  most  per- 
fect. From  the  Dahcotahs  on  the  west  to  the  Iroquois,  east, 
and  from  the  Hurons  on  the  Lake,  to  the  Ohio,  for  a  long 
course  of  years,  bloody  wars  had  carried  almost  extermina- 
tion to  some  tribes  and  nations.  A  single  generation  had 
witnessed  the  numerous  and  powerful  Illinois  nearly  swept 
from  the  land.     This  was  a  scliool  to  make  a  warrior,  and 


INDIANS.  197 

opportunity  to  bring  out  the  hero.  Besides  the  part  they  had 
in  this  savage  warfare,  tlicy  had  joined  tlie  French  in  their 
successive  wars  of  this  period,  and  had  seen  the  mihtary  art 
in  its  scientific  and  formidable  shapes,  with  the  aid  of  tactics 
and  strategy,  and  its  attendants  of  cannon  and  all  the  weapons 
of  civilized  war.  Pontiac  was  made  of  the  metal  to  improve 
under  this  teaching,  and  he  accordingly  came  out  of  it  as  good 
a  specimen  of  the  Indian  hero,  as  any  other,  perhaps,  of 
whom  we  have  knowledge. 

Muckatah  Mishakiahkiah  (the  Black  Sparrow  Hawk),  the 
Sauk  chief  known  in  our  day,  usually  called  Black  Hawk, 
was  in  person  below  the  middle  size,  of  that  nervous  tempe- 
rament which  unites  strength  with  activity,  and  crowns  the 
union  of  these  faculties  with  courage  and  a  spirit  that  seems 
never  exhausted,  and  cannot  be  subdued.  At  the  age  of  fif- 
teen, on  an  occasion  of  some  outrage  connnillcd  upon  a  por- 
tion of  the  Sauks  by  some  Indians  of  a  neighboring  tribe,  he 
followed  the  band  of  avengers,  who  pursued  and  chastised 
the  foe,  and  entitled  himself  to  the  rank  of  a  brave.  He  was 
frequently  engaged  in  hostile  encounters,  and  had  become  the 
first  warrior  of  the  nation.  Not  liking  the  treaty  of  1830,  by 
which  the  chiefs  of  the  Sauks  had  ceded  their  lands  east  of 
the  Missisippi,  and  having  other  causes  of  irritation,  as  already 
mentioned,  he  commenced  that  system  of  hostility  known  as 
the  Black  Hawk  War,  the  result  of  which  is  given  in  the 
historical  part  of  this  volume.  He  seems  not  to  have  been 
cruel  or  treacherous,  but  to  have  tempered  his  courage  with 
generosity  and  humanity.  He  had  less  opportunity  than  Pon- 
tiac to  display  before  the  whites  his  heroism,  as  he  had  also 
not  so  great  a  school  in  which  to  leani  the  art  of  war.  He 
was  probably  the  more  anuable  man  of  the  two.  A  strong 
attachment  to  their  friends  was  common  to  both.  A  high 
order  of  intellect  belongs  to  the  Sauk  tribe,  and  a  man  could 


198  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

not  gain  much  distinction  or  influence  among  them  without 
this  quahty.  These  two  warriors  have  obtained  as  much 
fame  as  any  others  whose  deeds  were  done  or  life  passed 
within  the  Hmits  of  these  notes. 

I  have  mentioned  the  error  of  the  laws  regulating  trade 
and  intercourse  with  the  Indians.  There  is  a  great  and  radi- 
cal error  in  the  plan  of  civilisation.  The  attempt  is  made  to 
reduce  the  roving  and  free  spirit  of  the  child  of  the  forest  at 
once  to  the  drudgery  of  a  systematic,  continued  industry,  to 
the  toil  to  which  man  is  reconciled  in  the  civilized  condition 
only  by  his  urgent  wants,  and  his  restless  desires  and  ambi- 
tion. But  the  red  man  is  w^ithout  the  incitements,  he  feels 
not  the  wants,  and  of  course  will  not  assume  the  burden  and 
labor,  of  civilized  life.  Why  should  he  change  his  whole 
habit  and  system  of  life,  and  giving  up  ease  and  liberty,  take 
to  himself  toil  and  slavery  ?  His  condition  does  not  require 
it,  and  his  nature,  spirit  and  habits,  all  revolt  at  it.  But  at 
the  same  time  that  he  is  invited  to  this  disagreeable  change, 
he  is  impelled  to  an  acquaintance  with  artificial  wants,  by 
sending  clothing,  comforts,  luxuries  and  gewgaws  to  him  ; 
and  his  ambition  is  raised  by  these  displays,  and  cherished 
by  reading.  It  is  all  precocious  and  impractical.  It  is 
like  attempting  to  make  a  child  w^alk  erect  at  once,  before  it 
has  made  the  primary  locomotive  process  by  crawling. 
Civilisation  will  not  come  per  saltum.  It  is  a  creature  that 
neither  will  fly  nor  leap.  It  is  the  creature  of  artificial  wants 
and  extra-natural  appetites  ;  those  again  are  the  creatures  of 
habit,  and  habit  in  its  turn  is  generated  by  circumstances. 
Tlirough  all  these  conditions  man  must  pass  in  his  progress 
to  civihsation.  Instead,  therefore,  of  attempting  to  bring 
the  red  man  at  once  into  the  unnatural  state  of  civilisation,  it 
should  be  done  by  degrees.  He  should  be  placed  in  an 
intermediate  state,  where  the  wants  arc  fewer  and  the  labor 


MONUMENTS.  109 

less  intense.  He  sliouki  be  invited  to  a  pastoral  life,  rather 
than  to  the  more  toilsome  and  more  intricate  and  skilful 
labors  of  agriculture.  Let  government,  instead  of  the  farm- 
ing implements  and  the  articles  furnished  through  the  traders  ; 
and  preceding  the  schools,  give  them  sheep.  It  will  not  be 
so  opposite  to  their  hal)its  ;  so  above  their  skill ;  or  so  revolt- 
ing to  their  spirit,  to  tend  the  flocks.  The  occupation  will 
give  them  an  article,  wool,  which  will  suggest  new  wants, 
clothing,  They  will  appropriate  it  to  those  wants.  Those 
wants  gratified,  and  a  surplus  of  a  valuable  commodity  left 
to  them,  they  will  create  new  wants,  and  will  exchange  that 
connnodity  for  something  to  supply  the  new  want,  gratify  the 
new  desire.  In  this  way  by  steps  they  will  acquire  both  the 
wants,  and  the  ways  and  means,  of  artificial  society.  But 
they  will  neither  fall  nor  jump  into  them.  Some  of  the  tribes 
have  indeed  passed  very  rapidly  from  the  wild  state  to  civili- 
sation ;  but  a  transition  state  is  more  natural,  more  whole- 
some, and  will  in  the  end  produce  gi^eatcr  results,  both  nume- 
rically and  morally. 

There  is  a  very  singular  monument,  or  collection  of  monu- 
ments, of  an  unknown  race,  an  unrecorded  time,  and  an 
unexpressed  purpose,  existing  in  this  country.  These  are 
conical  elevations  of  earthwork  standing  in  the  prairies,  or 
sometimes  crowned  with  a  grove,  of  very  regiUar  shape, 
from  five  to  ten  feet  usually,  in  height,  or  sometimes  more, 
and  from  thirty  to  fifty  or  more  in  diameter,  having  a  circular 
base.  They  are  usually  found  in  groups  or  collective 
ranges,  some  half  dozen  or  more  being  placed  in  line,  in  con- 
tact or  close  contiguity  at  the  bases,  extending  usually  from 
east  to  west.  By  what  people  constructed,  at  what  time,  or 
with  what  design,  have  been  involved  in  doubt.  J I  seems, 
however,  that  their  design  must  have  been  for  receptacles  for 
the  dead.     These  monuments  arc   very   frequent,  and  the 


200       -  NOTES    ON    THE    NORTHWEST. 

writer  has  met  with  them  in  many  places,  in  a  small  compass 
within  forty  or  fifty  miles  of  the  Missisippi.  Their  perfect 
regularity  of  shape,  size  and  direction,  forbid  the  idea  of  a 
natural  formation.  It  is  said  the  present  inhabitants  know 
nothinii  of  them,  and  have  no  traditions,  and  therefore  the 
inference  is  drawn  that  they  w^ere  the  works  of  another  race, 
who  had  become  extinct  before  the  tribes  now  there  possessed 
the  country.  To  my  mind,  however,  the  inference  is  not  a 
legitimate  one.  The  Indian  traditions  are  of  the  creation, 
the  deluge,  the  first  appearance  of  man  and  woman  upon  the 
earth,  great  eras  connected  with  the  formation  and  peopling 
of  the  earth,  and  kindred  to  them.  But  of  the  extinction  of 
tribes  or  nations  by  war  and  pestilence,  and  the  inhumation 
of  heaps  slain  by  disease  or  battle,  they  pass  down,  I  believe, 
no  story.  If  these  were  constructed  but  a  few  centuries 
ago,  the  living  descendants  of  the  people  who  reared  them 
might  be  now  uninformed  of  their  date  or  object. 

Mr.  Locke  has  given  an  account  of  some  very  singular 
works  of  this  kind  in  the  likeness  of  quadrupeds,  which  has 
been  printed  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Report  on  the  geology 
of  the  mineral  district,  by  David  Dale  Owen.  Mr.  Locke's 
account  is  subjoined,  as  a  part  of  the  Appendix  to  these  notes. 


APPENDIX. 


(A.) 


GEOLOGY. 

The  country  under  consideration  is  of  the  secondary  forma- 
tion, consisting  of  the  mountain  limestone  group,  and  princi- 
pally, in  some  parts  almost  exclusively,  of  the  cliff  limestone. 
It  bears  marks  too  distinct  to  be  overlooked,  of  having  been 
once  submerged.  The  shape  and  peculiar  smoothness  of  the 
surface  at  once  gives  this  idea,  wliich  is  confirmed  on  inspec- 
tion, by  finding  among  the  superior  strata  near  the  surface, 
stone  composed  wholly  of  fossil  marine  shells.  The  uniform 
slope  of  the  land,  also,  is  another  evidence  of  the  same  fact. 
This  feature  has  been  mentioned  in  describing  the  physical 
geography.  It  is  about  as  regular  from  the  Gulf  to  St.  Pe- 
ter's, as  the  bed  of  the  sea  upon  one  of  our  sand  beaches, 
and  in  the  whole  distance  of  more  than  1000  miles,  does  not 
much  exceed  a  rise  of  1000  feet,  or  one  foot  to  a  mile.  At 
the  sources  of  the  Missisippi  and  St.  Peter's,  we  reach  the 
heiglit  of  land  between  the  Gulf  and  Hudson's  Bay,  the 
waters  of  Red  River,  wliich  run  into  the  last,  starting  almost 
in  contact  with  the  two  others.  Indeed  the  passage  can  be 
made  in  boats  at  seasons  of  high  water,  from  St.  Peter's  to 
Red  River.     It  may  be  therefore  regarded  as  a  certain  fact, 

10* 


202  APPENDIX. 

thai  formerly  the  sea  covered  this  whole  valley,  from  the 
Gulf  to  Hudson's  Bay,  dividing  North  America  into  two  con 
tinents,  of  one  of  which  the  Alleghany,  of  the  other  the 
Rocky  mountain  range  formed  the  nuclei.  This  would  seem 
to  be  at  a  very  remote  period,  as  there  are  indications  that  it 
has  been  inhabited  at  an  antediluvian  period.  Pieces  of 
pottery  have  been  found  in  diiferent  places,  more  than  fifty 
feet  below  the  surface,  in  digging  wells  :  and  this  position 
can  hardly  be  accounted  for,  without  supposing  a  great  dis- 
turbance of  the  upper  strata  of  the  earth,  and  also  a  con- 
siderable lapse  of  time.  There  is  a  very  abundant  deposit 
of  coal  in  several  portions  of  the  valley :  beside  the  large 
Illinois  coal  field  :  generally  regarded  as  evidence  of  an  ante- 
diluvian vegetation.  According  to  Mr.  Guion,  there  are 
large  beds  of  coal  on  the  Des  Moines.  The  erratic  deposits 
are  found  upon  the  surface  upon  very  distant  points  in  this 
region.  They  are  mentioned  by  Nicollet  upon  the  Tchan- 
sansan  and  Tchankasndata,  as  well  as  high  upon  the  St. 
Peter's  ,  and  the  author  has  observed  them  upon  the  Wabe- 
sipinicon.  Mr.  Schoolcraft  says  the  rock  on  the  southern 
shore  of  Lake  Superior  consists  of  granite,  slate,  and  sand- 
stone. 

The  country  bordering  on  the  Missisippi,  within  the  inha- 
bited portions  of  Iowa,  and  below,  is  chiefly  a  mountain 
limestone.  In  some  localities,  as  already  mentioned,  are 
strata  of  fossil  cretaceous  formation,  composed  mostly  or 
wholly  of  shell.  At  the  top  of  the  bluff  at  Burlington,  at 
about  150  or  200  feet  above  the  mark  of  high  water  at  the 
usual  stage  of  the  river,  covered  only  with  a  thin  layer  of 
chert  and  vegetable  mould  of  a  few  inches,  is  an  encrinitic 
limestone  which  may,  from  appearance,  be  altogether  of  this 
shell.  And,  at  Iowa  City,  the  same  shell  composes  a  very 
soft,  fine-grained  marble  of  a  dingy-white  color,  which  re- 


GEOLOGY.  203 

ccives  a  fine  polisli,  and  is  a  higlily  ornamental  and  valual)le 
slone.  There  is  also  a  soft,  black,  variegated  marble,  like 
the  Egyptian,  and  some  other  marbles  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  Iowa,  between  the  Des  Moines  and  Iowa.  In  some 
parts  of  this  district  bituminous  coal  has  been  found,  and  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Missisippi  is  an  extensive  bed.  Further 
north,  about  the  Wabesipinicon,  is  a  region  of  iron,  then  the 
great  bed  of  galena  or  sulphate  of  lead,  and  in  the  farther 
north  the  copper  district.  This  is  probably  the  richest 
mineral  region  in  the  world  ;  and  to  the  geologist  and  mine- 
ralogist, an  extensive  and  profitable  field  of  research.  Tlie 
banks  of  the  Missisippi  contain  great  quantities  of  the  pre- 
cious stones,  which  are  washed  out  by  rains  and  carried 
down  by  the  stream.  In  some  places,  within  four  or  five 
years,  the  writer  has  found  some  very  beautiful  agates  and 
cornelians  in  the  streets  of  the  towns  ;  and,  in  a  stroll  of  an 
hour  on  the  shore,  has  loaded  his  pockets  with  them. 

There  are  several  very  accurate  and  complete  descriptions 
of  the  geology  of  this  country.  And,  instead  of  attempting 
to  give  my  own  account  of  it,  I  shall  embody  in  this  part  of 
my  work  the  published  account  of  Long,  Owen,  and  Nicol- 
let, &:c.,  which,  together,  include  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  which  is  tlie  subject  of  this  volune.  My  own  obser- 
vation of  the  country,  geologically,  being  very  cursory  and 
partial,  and  the  survey  of  these  gentlemen,  all  scientific  men, 
furnishing  a  very  satisfactory  description  of  the  country  in 
this  respect :  I  transcribe  their  observations  in  extenso.  Mr. 
Nicollet's  observations  extended  over  a  large  portion  of  this 
region,  and  his  remarks  below  give  us  the  result  in  several 
dilferent  localities.     He  says  : 

"  The  region  comprised  within  my  map  is  covered  by  a 
species  of  deposite  of  the  kind  for  a  long  lime  known  by  the 
name  of  diluvium  ;  but,  as  this  word  implies  a  theoretic  idea 


204  APPENDIX. 

as  regards  the  accumulation  of  such  deposits,  the  cause  of 
which  is  still  open  to  controversy,  it  is  now  very  generally 
abandoned,  and  the  designation  of  erratic  deposits,  among 
others,  adopted  in  its  stead.  I  have,  therefore,  used  the 
latter  expression,  as  comprehending  a  vast  deposit  of  sand, 
gravel,  pebbles,  clay  (arranged  in  zones,  and  occupying 
almost  always  the  bottoms),  and  masses  of  rocks  transported 
to  a  distance  from  their  original  position,  usually  called  erra- 
tic blocks.  This  deposit  always  occurs  between  the  vegeta- 
ble soil  and  the  rocky  strata  of  all  ages  that  constitute  the 
geological  basis  of  each  section  of  country.  To  the  north 
and  to  the  south  of  the  western  portion  of  Lake  Superior,  as 
far  as  the  upper  half  of  St.  Peter's  River,  it  overlies  prima- 
ry rocks  ;  south  of  the  St.  Peter's,  to  the  west  and  east  of 
the  Missisippi,  it  covers  silurian  rocks  ;  whilst,  on  the  Upper 
Missouri,  it  rests  upon  a  cretaceous  formation,  everywhere 
mixing  itself  with  the  detritus  of  the  rocks  in  place.  The 
thickness  of  this  deposit  is  very  variable  ;  sometimes  only 
quite  superficial,  and,  when  of  a  more  important  character, 
from  150  to  160  feet  in  depth.  It  is  met  with,  indifferently, 
with  its-  erratic  fragments,  on  the  summits  of  hills,  on  the 
upland  plateaux,  over  the  plains,  and  in  the  valleys.  It  has 
contributed  towards  levelling  the  original  irregularities  of  the 
soil,  by  filling  up  hollows  ;  or  varied  them,  by  transporting 
over  the  country  new  materials ;  whilst  the  subsequent  action 
of  water  and  weather  has  further  brought  about  its  charac- 
teristic features. 

"  The  erratic  blocks  of  this  deposit  are  not  generally 
rounded,  but  they  are  still  boulders.  Those  which  have  the 
rounded  appearance,  most  usual  to  boulders,  among  a  great 
many  that  I  had  an  opportunity  of  examining,  owe  it  to  their 
exposure  to  the  atmospheric  agents  which  have  worn  them 
down.     This  is  made  evident  by  examining  those  portions  of 


/ 


GEOLOGY.  205 

tlicin  which  arc  buried  in  the  soil,  and,  in  this  way,  protcclcd ; 
their  angles  and  corners  show  but  little  erosion.  On  the 
other  hand,  wherever  there  is  a  deposit  of  pebbles,  its  origin 
may  be  easily  traced  to  local  causes  tliat  have  acted  long 
after  the  arrival  of  the  erratic  deposit  now  under  considera- 
tion. 

"  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  direction  whence  the  ma- 
terials of  the  erratic  deposit  came.  The  presumption  is, 
judging  from  the  nature  of  the  erratic  blocks — the  analogues 
of  which  are  found  in  higher  latitudes — that  they  were 
brought  from  the  north  to  the  south. 

*'  On  the  borders  of  the  great  lakes,  on  the  flanks  of  valleys, 
and  where  traces  of  recent  floods  are  apparent,  the  erratic 
blocks  are  in  great  abundance.  Their  size  varies  from  a  few 
inches  to  a  few  cubic  feet ;  yet  this  seems  to  bear  no  relation 
to  the  distance  whence  they  are  supposed  to  have  come.  On 
the  contrary,  it  appears  that  the  largest  are  often  found  in  the 
highest  spots,  and  at  a  greater  distance  from  tlieir  origin.  I 
did  not  find  them  more  abundant  on  the  northern  slopes  of 
hills  than  on  the  southern.  Their  oryctognostic  distinctions 
are — granitic  sienite,  resembling  the  Egyptian  red  granite  ; 
a  true  sienite,  with  white  feldspar ;  a  gi'anite,  with  a  large 
proportion  of  feldspar  ;  gneiss,  amj/liibolite,  red  jasper,  quartz 
pebbles,  and  a  great  variety  of  agates  and  cornelians.  These 
last  are  carried  off"  by  the  streams,  and  scattered  in  great 
numbers  over  the  shores  of  the  Missisippi  and  Missouri ;  but 
they  have  no  value,  and  are  collected  by  travellers  merely  as 
reminiscences.  The  sand  and  gravel  are  composed  of  the 
small  fragments  of  all  these  rock^  ;  the  sand,  though  varying 
according  to  places,  being  principally  siliceous.  It  is  this 
sand  which  constitutes  the  predominant  ingredient  in  the  soils 
of  the  whole  region  embraced  in  the  map,  modified  according 


^^ 


206  APPENDIX. 

to  localities  by  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  lime,  magnesia, 
oxide  of  iron,  &c. 

"  The  uplands  that  border  on  the  rapids  are  based  upon 
the  mountain  or  carboniferous  limestone,  as  the  contained 
fossils  indicate.  The  limestone,  of  a  dirty  color,  and  mucli 
broken  up,  is  the  matrix  of  numerous  siliceous  and  calcareous 
geodes.  These  fine  geodes,  picked  up  by  all  travellers,  are 
found  on  the  banks  of  the  rapids,  having  fallen  from  the 
adjoining  bluffs.  Within  a  few  years,  there  has  been  a  road 
opened  leading  to  Warsaw,  and,  being  cut  off  from  the  bluff, 
has  exposed  to  view  the  stratum  in  which  the  geodes  occur, 
and  their  position  therein.  They  are  observed  to  be  slightly 
compressed,  their  greater  axes  being  parallel  to  the  stratifica- 
tion of  the  limestone,  which  is  horizontal.  As  I  have  col- 
lected a  number  of  them,  I  shall  describe,  mineralogically,  a 
few  of  those  that  have  appeared  to  me  the  most  interesting  in 
their  mineral  association,  viz.: — 

1 .  Siliceous  geodes,  the  cavity  of  which  is  filled  with  pris- 

matic crystals  of  limpid  quartz  (quarz  hyalin). 

2.  Siliceous  geodes,  filled  with  crystalline  quarz,  the  pyra- 

midical  terminations  of  which  are  of  a  red  color. 

3.  Siliceous  geodes,  filled  with  crystallized  calcareous  spar 

(variety,  en  tete  de  clou  of  Haiiy). 

4.  Silico-calcareous  geodes,  with  rhombic  calcareous  spar. 

5.  Silico-calcareous    geodes,    with   confusedly    crystallized 

calcareous  spar. 

6.  Siliceous  geodes,  enclosing  calcareous  spar  and  crystalline 

sulphuret  of  zinc. 

7.  Siliceous  geodes,  containing  mamelonated  chalcedony,  of  a 

red  color. 
"  These  geodes  vary  in  size  from  four  or  five  inches  in 
diameter  to  twelve  or  fifteen. 

"  The   following   section    exhibits   the    several    subdivi- 


7 

GEOLOGY.  207 

sions  according  to  mincralogical  and  oryctognostical  distinc- 
tions of  character  at  Burlington,  and  in  the  descending 
order : — 

1.  Superficial  soil  -         -         _ 

2.  Cliert  -  

3.  Yellow  limestone,  with  spatic  encrinites  and 

productae  .-_._> 

4.  Calcareous  argillaceous  marl,  with  few  fossils 

5.  Siliceous  limestone       ----- 

6.  Oolitic  limestone,  with  productai    -         -         - 

7.  Bluish  clay  ------ 

8.  Yellow  compact  limestone     .         -         -         - 

9.  Compact  siliceous  limestone,  with  veins  of  cal- 

careous spar    ------ 

10,  Oolitic  limestone  ----- 

1 1 .  Saccharoidal  blue  limestone,  with  veins  of  cal- 

careous spar,  and  impressions  of  small  orthis 
and  strophomena      ----- 

"  The  valley  of  the  '  Red  Pipestone'  extends  from  N.NW. 
to  S.SE.,  in  the  form  of  an  ellipsis  ;  being  about  three  miles 
in  length,  with  a  breadth,  at  its  smaller  axis,  of  half  a  mile. 
It  is  cradle-shaped,  and  its  slope  to  the  east  is  a  smooth 
sward,  without  trees  and  without  rocks.  Its  slope  to  the 
west  is  rugged,  presenting  a  surfrice  of  rocks  throughout  its 
whole  length,  that  form  a  very  picturesque  appearance,  and 
would  deserve  a  special  description  if  this  were  the  place  to 
do  so.  But  I  am  now  more  particularly  interested  in  defining 
its  geological  features. 

*'  The  principal  rock  that  strikes  the  attention  of  the 
observer  in  this  remarkable  inland  bhill  is  an  indurated 
[metamorphic)  sand-rock,  or  quarzitc,  the  red  color  of  which 
diminishes  in  intensity  from  the  base  to  the  summit.     It  is 


25  i 

feet. 

2 

(( 

10 

(.1 

3 

u 

2 

(( 

2 

(( 

3 

(( 

3 

(( 

8 

(( 

1 

2t 

11 

1 
2 

(( 

208  APPENDIX. 

distinctly  stratified ;  the  upper  beds  being  very  much  wea- 
ther-worn and  disintegrated  into  large  and  small  cubic  frag- 
ments. 

"  The  whole  thickness  of  this  quarzite,  which  immediately 
overlies  the  bed  of  the  red  pipestone,  is  twenty-six  and  a  half 
feet.  Its  strata  appear  to  have  a  small  dip  to  the  NE.  The 
floor  of  the  valley,  which  is  higher  than  the  red  pipestone,  is 
formed  by  the  inferior  strata  of  the  quarzite,  and,  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  is  most  generally  under  water  ;  the  action 
of  which  upon  the  rock  is  apparent  in  the  great  quantity  of 
fragments  strewn  over  the  valley,  so  as  to  render  it  uncom- 
fortable to  walk  over  them.  The  creek,  by  which  the  valley 
is  drained,  feeds,  in  its  course,  three  distinct  small  basins,  at 
different  elevations,  that  penetrate  down  as  far  as  the  red 
pipestone. 

"  This  red  pipestone,  not  more  interesting  to  the  Indian 
than  it  is  to  the  man  of  science,  by  its  unique  character, 
deserves  a  particular  description.  In  the  quarry  of  it  which 
I  had  opened,  the  thickness  of  the  bed  is  one  foot  and  a  half, 
the  upper  portion  of  which  separates  in  thin  slabs,  whilst  the 
lower  ones  are  more  compact.  As  a  mineralogical  species, 
it  may  be  described  as  follows  :  compact ;  structure,  slaty  ; 
receiving  a  dull  polish ;  having  a  red  streak ;  color,  blood 
red,  with  dots  of  a  fainter  shade  of  the  same  color  ;  fracture, 
rough  ;  sectile  .  feel  somewhat  greasy ;  hardness  not  yield- 
ing to  the  nail ;  not  scratched  by  selenite,  but  easily  by  cal- 
careous spar  ;  specific  gravity,  2.90.  The  acids  have  no 
action  upon  it ;  before  the  blow-pipe  it  is  infusible  per  se^ 
but,  with  borax,  gives  a  green  glass. 

"  According  to  Professor  Jackson,  of  Boston,  who  has 
analysed  it,  and  applied  to  it  the  name  of  catlinite,  after  Mr. 
Catlin,  it  is  composed  of 


GEOLOGY. 

209 

"  Water 

_ 

- 

-     8.4 

Silica         -         .         -         . 

- 

- 

-  48.2 

Alumina    -         -         -         - 

- 

- 

-  28.2 

Magnesia            ... 

- 

- 

-     6.0 

Peroxide  of  iron 

- 

- 

-     5.0 

Oxide  of  manganese 

- 

- 

-     0.6 

Carbonate  of  lime 

- 

- 

-     2.6 

Loss  (probably  magnesia)  - 

- 

- 

-     1.0 

100 

**  But  Professor  Jackson  assimilates  it  to  the  agalmatolite, 
from  which  it  differs,  however,  very  materially  by  its  general 
aspect,  its  conduct  before  the  blow-pipe,  and  its  total  insolu- 
bility in  sulphuric  acid. 

"  Anotlicr  feature  of  the  Red  Pipestone  Valley,  is  the  oc- 
currence of  granitic  boulders  of  larger  size  than  any  I  had 
previously  met.  One  of  them  measured  about  60  feet  in 
circumference,  and  was  from  10  to  12  feet  thick.  They  are 
strewed  over  the  valley,  in  which  it  is  remarkable  that  there 
are  no  pebbles. 

**  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Mankato,  six  miles  from  its 
mouth,  in  a  rocky  bluff  composed  of  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, are  found  cavities  in  which  the  famed  blue  or  green 
earth,  used  by  the  Sioux  as  their  principal  pigment,  is 
ob  tamed. 

"  As  I  did  in  tlic  case  of  the  red  pipcstone  described 
above,  I  will  state  tlie  mineralogical  characters  of  the  Indian 
blue  earth,  or  clay.  It  is  massive,  somewhat  plastic,  emits 
an  argillaceous  odor  wlicn  breathed  upon  ; — color,  bluish 
green;  easily  scratched  with  the  nail  when  formed  into 
hardened  balls.  The  acids  have  no  action  upon  it  ;  it  is 
infusible  before  the  blow-pipe,  but  loses  its  color  and  becomes 
brown.     This  color  is  due  to  the  peroxide  of  iron,  which  it 


210  APPENDIX. 

contains  in  the  proportion  of  ten  per  cent,  at  least.  It  con- 
tains no  potash,  and  but  a  small  proportion  of  lime.  It  is  a 
very  different  mineral  from  that  described  by  Dr.  Thompson, 
under  the  name  of  pipe-clay. 

"  The  predominant  rock  in  this  region  of  country  to  which 
I  am  now  referring — namely,  from  the  Platte  River  to  Coun- 
cil Bluffs — is  the  carboniferous  or  mountain  limestone,  well 
characterized  by  the  fossils,  consisting  principally  of  the  pro- 
ducta  lobata,  producta  punctata,  orthis,  dehh^nris,  turbinolia 
fungites,  crinoidal  remains,  &c.  ;  most  of  these  genera  afford- 
ing several  new  species  as  yet  undescribed. 

"  This  formation  is  a  continuation  of  that  which  underhes 
so  vast  an  extent  of  the  Missisippi  Valley  ;  but  having  a 
mucli  larger  development  over  the  States  that  are  to  the  east 
of  this  river,  and  extending  even  to  the  Alleghanies.  It  is 
the  support  of  important  coal-basins,  and  rests  upon  a  group 
of  Silurian  rocks,  beginning  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony, 
extending  itself  from  north  to  south,  constituting  the  mme- 
ral  regions  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Missouri,  and  losing 
itself  somewhere  in  the  State  of  Ai'kansas.  This  last-men- 
tioned group  is  bounded  at  the  north  by  amphibolic  rocks, 
steaschists,  and  clay  slates,  that  extend  to  beyond  47^  of  N. 
latitude  ;  and  at  the  south  also  by  steaschists  and  clay  slates, 
that  compose  the  principal  rocks  at  Little  Rock  in  the  State 
of  Arkansas,  and  also  those  of  the  Washita  mountains. 
These  rocks  are  referrible  to  certain  members  of  the  group 
to  which  Mr.  D'Homaluis  d'Halloy  has  given  the  name  of 
terrain  ardoisier,  and  have  their  equivalent  in  the  series  of  the 
grauwacke  of  German  geologists.  Thus,  by  this  distribu- 
tion of  the  geological  formations,  it  would  seem  that,  more 
particularly  to  the  west  of  the  Missisippi,  the  silurian  group 
is  imbedded  within  the  '  terrain  ardoisier,'  or  grauwacke, 


GEOLOGY.  211 

just  as  the  carboniferous  series,  with  its  coal  measures,  over- 
lies the  Silurian. 

"  From  wliat  I  have  so  far  said  of  the  geology  of  tlic  West, 
it  will  be  perceived  that  I  have  adopted  the  classification  of 
the  older  fossiliferous  rocks,  as  laid  down  by  its  illustrious 
author,  Mr.  Murchison.  But  I  must  confess  that  I  hesitated 
about  it  a  long  time  ;  notwithstanding  the  opinions  of  my 
friends  MM.  Vanuxcm  and  Conrad,  both  distinguished  geolo- 
gists and  conchologists,  who  had  recognized  among  my  fossils 
irrecusable  evidences  of  the  occurrence  of  a  silurian  group 
in  the  West.  Having  attached  too  nmch  importance  to  the 
term  '  old  red  sandstone  ;'  seeking,  in  vain,  over  the  country 
that  I  was  exploring,  an  equivalent  for  it,  either  mineralogical 
or  pakeontological,  which  would  enable  me  to  separate  the 
carboniferous  from  the  silurian  system,  unless  I  chose  to  find 
it  in  the  sandstone  on  the  St.  Louis  of  Lake  Superior,  or 
that  of  the  environs  of  Little  Rock,  in  the  Arkansas  ;  and 
not  feeling  authorized  to  do  so,  from  the  absence  of  fossils — 
fearing,  moreover,  that  these  rocks  were  actually  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  system  under  consideration,  as  I  said  before,  I 
could  not  but  hesitate.  However,  having  recently  become 
acquainted  with  the  learned  papers  read  in  1840  before  the 
Geological  Society  of  France,  by  MM.  Murchison  and  De 
Vemeuil — one  '  on  the  Devonian  rocks  of  the  Boulonnais  ;' 
the  other  '  on  the  importance  of  determining  the  limits  be- 
tween the  mountain  limestone  and  the  inferior  formations' — 
a  new  light  was  afforded  me  ;  all  my  doubts  were  dissipated  ; 
and  I  then  saw  the  necessity,  in  identifying  the  relative  ages 
of  rocks,  and  especially  those  separated  from  each  other  by 
long  intervals  of  country,  to  attend  exclusively  to  their  fossil 
contents. 

"  Starting,  then,  from  this  principle,  I  tliink  I  can  confi- 


212  APPENDIX. 

dently  offer  indubitable  proofs  of  the  occuiTence  of  the  Devo- 
nian rocks  on  the  Missouri  River. 

"  In  latitude  40^  50^  and  longitude  95°  42'  from  Green- 
wich, eighteen  miles  below  Platte  River,  there  is  a  locality- 
known  by  the  name  of  '  Five  Barrels  Island.'  Opposite  to 
that  group,  and  on  the  right  side  of  the  river,  a  bluff,  at  the 
termination  of  a  series  of  rocky  banks,  is  separated  by  a 
small  creek  from  another  series  called  Cotes  de  la  Platte. 
At  the  base  of  the  bluff  there  is — 

"  1st.  A  compact  argillaceous  limestone  of  a  bluish  color, 
from  one  to  two  feet  thick  ;  soft  under  water,  but  hardening 
when  exposed  to  the  air ;  it  weathers  into  thin  plates,  pre- 
senting an  uneven  surface  ;  on  which  there  are  impressions 
of  euomphali,  but  too  indistinct  to  be  specified. 

"  2d.  A  compact  argillaceous  limestone  of  a  yellowish- 
grey  color,  from  six  to  seven  feet  thick,  containing  an  abun- 
dance of  crinoidal  remains,  associated  with  beautiful  and  large 
specimens  of  the  cyathophyllum  vermiculare  of  Gold.  This 
limestone  also  contains  a  producta  and  an  unknown  bivalve, 
together  with  crystallized  bi-sulphuret  of  iron  agglomerated 
into  bullets. 

"  The  uppermost  portion  of  the  bluffs,  attaining  a  height  of 
180  feet  above  the  river,  I  remarked  to  be  shadowed  by  trees 
over  a  beautiful  green  sward ;  but  I  had  no  opportunity  of 
examining  it  particularly. 

"  It  may  be  well  to  state  here,  that  all  such  rocky  banks 
as  the  one  just  alluded  to,  noticed  by  Lewis  and  Clark,  and 
subsequently  by  Major  Long,  are  constantly  wearing  away  ; 
so  that  they  offer  landmarks  to  the  traveller  only  for  a  limited 
period  of  time.  But  we  are  not  to  judge  of  their  orycto- 
gnostical  character  from  the  detritus  found  below  tliem  ;  be- 
cause this  is  composed  not  only  of  the  materials  derived 
from  the  bluffs,   but  of  others  earned  down  the  Missouri 


GEOLOGY.  213 


during  its  season  of  liigli  waters.  Among  tliese  materials  is 
the  oft-mentioned  pumice  stone,  wliicli  is  brought  down  from 
tlie  upper  parts  of  the  river.  I  have  ascertained,  by  a  more 
careful  exammation  than  had  probably  been  given  to  it  pre- 
viously, that  it  is  not  a  true  pumice,  but  a  semivitreous  sub- 
stance, produced  by  pseudo-volcanoes,  that  I  shall  hereafter 
describe  ;  the  region  of  which  is  laid  down  upon  my  map. 

"  On  the  elevated  prairies  above  the  bluffs,  the  *  erratic 
deposite '  again  appears  ;  amongst  which  I  found,  for  the 
first  time,  fragments  of  quartzite  in  every  respect  similar  to 
that  of  the  Red  Pipestone  Quarry. 

*'  Mr.  Murchison,  in  his  lately  published  Memoir,  refers  to 
a  paper  by  Mr.  Lonsdale  on  the  Devonian  system,  in  which 
that  celebrated  palceontologist  indicates  the  principal  fossils 
belonging  to  it  ;  referrmg,  also,  to  the  species  found  in  Bel- 
gium and  in  France,  as  well  as  in  Devonshire.  In  this  list 
of  six  species  enumerated  as  belonging  characteristically  to 
the  Devonian  system,  I  find  stromboles  vermicularis,  or 
cyathophyllum  vermiculare  ;  and  euomphalus  radiatus  (Gold). 
The  cyathophyllum  vermiculare,  it  appears,  is  the  only 
species  that  is  found  both  in  the  Devonshire  rocks  and  those 
of  the  Boulonnais.  Well,  now,  if  we  take  into  account  the 
enormous  distance  that  separates  the  small  gi'oup  that  I  have 
just  described,  with  its  equivalent  in  France  and  in  England, 
will  It  be  thought  hazarding  too  much  to  detach  it  from  the 
place  I  had  first  assigned  to  it  in  the  lower  mountain  lime- 
stone, and  bring  it  down  to  the  Devonian  system  ? 

"  The  group  to  which  I  am  now  referring,  and  wliich  is  at 
the  base  of  the  rocky  banks  previously  described,  is  very 
fossiliferous,  and  has  a  great  extent ;  though  I  had  no  occa- 
sion to  give  it  but  a  rapid  examination.  I  may  be  permitted 
to  hope  that  naturalists  more  fortunately  circumstanced  will 
discover  among  it  otlier  characteristics  by  wliich  to  complete 


214  APPENDIX. 

an  identification  with  its  European  equivalents  ;  thereby 
stamping  upon  the  new  classification  of  the  older  fossiliferous 
rocks  an  additional  proof  of  contemporaneity  as  regards  the 
'Far  West'  of  America,  which  will  most  probably  be  veri- 
fied in  time  over  our  whole  globe. 

"  This  series  of  rocks,  then  (which  I  feel  necessitated  to 
refer  to  the  Devonian  system,  for  reasons  stated  above), 
underlying  those  of  the  carboniferous  system,  have,  conse- 
quently, their  appropriate  place  above  the  silurian  rocks, 
members  of  which  are  found  beyond  Wolf  river,  and,  again, 
now  and  then,  in  proceeding  from  bluff  to  bluff  along  the 
Missouri. 

*'  The  carboniferous  rocks,  which  form  a  large  and  im- 
portant feature  in  the  geology  of  this  region,  are  full  of 
fossils,  and  may  be  said  to  offer  a  new  field  of  exploration  to 
the  fossil  conchologist  in  the  great  number  of  new  species 
belonging  to  the  genera  producta — delthyris,  orthis,  stropho- 
mena,  atrypa,  favorites,  &c.  To  indicate  the  numerous 
localities  w^here  these  fossils  are  variously  associated  with 
each  other,  would  only  be  multiplying  a  list  of  them — which 
I  cannot  afford  to  do  in  a  report,  the  scale  of  which  hardly 
leaves  room  to  lay  down  the  greatest  geological  divisions  of 
the  country.  I  would  only  add,  that  the  producta  lobata,  and 
producta  punctata,  and  the  turbinolia  fungites  of  Phillips, 
appear  to  me  to  be  the  characteristic  fossils  of  the  carboni- 
ferous rocks  in  this  region.  They  occur  at  localities  very 
distant  from  each  other — between  Five  Barrels  Island  and 
Council  Bluffs  ;  on  the  Des  Moines  ;  from  Racoon  Fork  to 
the  lower  rapids  of  the  Missisippi  ;  in  the  vicinity  of  St. 
Louis,  St.  Genevieve,  &c.,  &c.  At  the  last-mentioned 
locality,  on  the  Hmestone  over  which  the  creek  called  Ga- 
bouri  flows,  the  turbinolia  fungites  and  a  new  species  of 
producta  are  found  associated  with  the  bcUerophon  hiulcus, 


GEOLOGY.  215 

as  well  as  oilier  species  ;  and  tlicy  arc  all  mineralized  into 
red  chalcedony, 

"  Tiie  upper  strata  of  this  Gabouri  limestone  present  a 
beautiful  rock  with  an  oolitic  structure,  which  is  now  quarried 
for  architectural  purposes.  It  is  doubtless  an  equivalent  of 
that  which  occurs  in  the  Burlington  group,  Iowa.  It  extends 
itself  to  the  right  and  to  the  left  of  the  Missisippi,  to  near  the 
Ohio  river,  and  even  througli  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  The 
fossils  contained  in  tiie  oolitic  limestone  of  the  Gabouri  are 
obscure  and  undeterminable  ;  but,  in  other  localities,  this 
rock  has  yielded  pentremites  pyriformis,  pentremites  globo- 
sus,  pentremites  florealis,  that  have  been  described  by  Say, 
and  a  fourth  species,  which  is  new. 

"  I  have  deemed  the  foregoing  digression  necessary  in 
order  to  connect  the  geology  of  the  country  just  described, 
with  a  more  recent  formation,  previously  alluded  to,  with 
which  I  am  to  meet  in  ascending  the  Missouri. 

"  I  landed  a  mile  or  so  before  reaching  the  mouth  of  the 
Sioux  River,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Missouri,  to  examine  a 
rocky  bank,  seemingly  a  continuation  of  those  apparent  at 
Wood's  Hill.     I  found  it  to  consist  of — 

"  1  St.  A  carboniferous  limestone  ; 

"  2d.  An  argillaceous  schistose  limestone. 

"  The  rocks  in  this  locality  reach  only  to  an  elevation  of 
seven  or  eight  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river  ;  and  I  take 
notice  of  them  here,  because  I  am  disposed  to  think  that  they 
are  the  last  representatives  of  the  carboniferous  series  in  the 
ascent  of  the  Missouri,  and  that  the  mouth  of  the  Sioux 
River  is  the  true  limit  in  this  direction  of  the  old  fossilifcrous 
rocks. 

"The  rocks  of  which  it  (Dixon's  Blufi')  is  composed,  are 
the  same  that  constantly  make  their  appearance  on  ascending 
the  river,  at  the  base  of  the  hills  which  bound  the  valley.     I 


16  APPENDIX. 


shall  content  myself  with  describing  them  once  for  all. 
Moreover,  to  facilitate  the  reference  which  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  make  to  the  different  geological  divisions  of  a  group 
of  rocks  which  I  propose  to  consider  under  the  name  of 
Dixon's  Group,  or  Dixon's  Bluff,  I  shall  note  the  divisions 
of  this  group,  in  their  ascending  order,  by  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  viz. : — 

"  A.  .'Vrgillaceous  limestone,  containing  inoceramus  bara- 
bini,  in  great  number  and  very  much  compressed,  and  so 
arranged  as  to  give  the  rock  a  slaty  structure.  This  stratum 
sinks  below  the  bed  of  the  river,  and,  consequently,  its  thick- 
ness is  indeterminable  ;  that  part  of  it  above  the  water  on  the 
day  of  my  examination  was  three  feet.  Starting  from  this 
place,  and  ascending  the  river,  this  rock  must  necessarily 
disappear  below  the  level  of  the  water.  It  is,  probably,  more 
conspicuous  in  the  two  preceding  cliffs  I  have  referred  to 
before,  but  which  I  had  not  an  opportunity  of  examining. 
The  upper  portions  of  the  rock,  that  I  did  examine,  contain 
nodules  of  iron  pyrites,  bemg  an  assemblage  of  small  cubic, 
cubo-octaedral,  and  octaedral  crystals. 

"  B.  A  calcareous  marl,  generally  from  thirty  to  forty  feet 
thick,  but,  at  this  spot,  reduced,  by  a  slide,  to  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet.  Its  colors  are  grey,  greyish-blue,  and  sometimes  yel- 
low. It  contains  but  very  few  fossils.  I  found,  myself,  but 
one  orbicula,  and  what  appears  to  be  a  fish-scale. 

"  C.  This  is  a  slightly  ferruginous  clay-bank,  of  a  yellow- 
ish color,  with  seams  of  selenite,  and  affording,  occasionally, 
rounded  masses,  somewhat  resembling  septariae.  The  sele- 
nite is  in  acicular  crystals,  or  in  its  more  usual  form  of  rhombic 
prisms,  variously  truncated. 

Such  are  the  three  divisions  that  I  have  thought  necessary 
to  make  in  this  group  of  rocks,  and  which  are  always  thus 
associated  as  the  river  is  ascended.     This  group  is  the  basis 


GEOLOGY.  217 

of  the  cretaceous  formation  of  the  Missouri.  The  upper 
sub-divisions,  which  I  shall  have  occasion  to  establish  further 
up,  and  that  are  not  sufficiently  distinct  here,  will  complete 
an  account  of  this  interesting  formation. 

"  On  quitting  Huppan-kutey  Prairie,  the  entrance  to  the 
Wassisha,  or  Vermilion  River,  and  that  of  the  Riviere 
Jacques  of  the  French,  the  Tchan-sansan  of  the  Sioux,  are 
passed  by  in  succession.  In  tliis  interval,  tlie  valley  liills  are 
at  a  distance,  and  the  cretaceous  formation  is  not  easily  fol- 
lowed up ;  but,  a  little  further  on,  it  re-appears  on  tlie  left 
side,  with  the  plateau  dividing  the  waters  that  empty  into  the 
Tchan-sansan  from  those  that  flow  into  the  Missouri.  This 
upland  is  known  as  the  '  Coteau  des  Prairies  du  Missouri,' 
or,  more  shortly,  '  Coteau  du  Missouri.' 

"  The  elevated  prairies  that  crown  the  right  bank  of  the  Mis- 
souri River,  rise  gradually  in  the  direction  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, forming  the  northern  extremity  of  those  steppes,  more  ap- 
propriately designated  the  American  Desert.  Hence,  it  will  be 
perceived  that  the  river  has  its  bed  deeply  incased  in  a  valley, 
flanked  on  the  left  side  by  the  Coteau  du  Missouri,  and  on 
the  right  by  the  American  Desert.  Over  a  length  of  235 
miles,  comprised  within  this  valley,  between  the  Ni-obrarah, 
or  '  Eau-qui-court'  river,  and  Fort  Pierre  Chouteau,  the  cre- 
taceous formation  exhibits  its  fullest  development.  It  may 
be  satisfactorily  examined  at  many  places  within  this  range  ; 
but  a  perfect  representation  of  the  whole  of  them  may  be 
obtained,  if,  taking  as  a  basis  the  description  previously  given 
of  Dixon's  Blufi",  there  be  added  to  it  the  modification  pre- 
sented by  some  of  its  new  members. 

*'  I  may  be  permitted  to  think  that  this  cretaceous  forma- 
tion is  destined  to  occupy  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  history 
of  American  geology  ;  and,  as  I  am  not  aware  that  any  details 
concerning  it  are  recorded,  I  shall  now,  to  tlie  exclusion  of 

11 


218  APPENDIX. 

Other  matters,  possibly  of  equal  interest,  say  all  that  I  know 
about  it. 

"It  is  necessary,  then,  in  the  first  place,  to  take  both  a 
geographical  and  geological  horizon.  Thus,  referring  to  the 
map  :  startins",  for  instance,  from  the  Wicha-pahah,  or  Scalp 
Mountain  Creek,  in  lat.  43^  8^  and  visiting,  successively,  as 
follows — the  hills  at  the  mouth  of  Whetstone  Creek  ;  those 
in  the  vicinity  of  Red  Cedar,  Snags,  and  Sailor's  Islands  ;  the 
Mankizitah,  or  White-earth  River ;  the  American  River,  the 
Great  Bend  (which  is  the  Karmichigah  of  the  Sioux),  it  will 
be  easy  to  understand  all  the  circumstances  about  which  I 
shall  now  give  an  account. 

"  1st.  The  stratum  of  argillaceous  limestone,  observ^ed  at 
Dixon's  Bluff,  has  disappeared,  in  consequence  of  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  level  of  the  valley. 

"  2d.  The  calcareous  marl,  in  horizontal  stratification, 
continues  to  make  its  appearance  in  escarpments,  of  from 
thirty  to  forty  feet,  containing  the  same  fossils — namely,  orbi- 
cula  and  fish-scales. 

"  Over  this  bed,  or  rather  between  it  and  the  preceding 
one,  there  seems  to  be  occasionally  found  a  thin  layer  of 
fibrous  carbonate  of  lime,  the  true  position  of  which  I  was  a 
long  lime  in  determining,  as  I  had  discovered  fragments  of  it 
only  among  the  rubbish  at  the  foot  of  the  bluff.  I  have  since 
observed  it  in  place  above  the  calcareous  marl ;  and  it  is 
interesting  that  it  is  covered  with  coats  of  a  fossil,  very  much 
resembling  the  gryphcea  Vomer,  but  which  Mr.  Conrad  has 
described  under  the  name  of  ostrea  congesta. 

"  3d.  The  bed  C,  composed  of  a  foliated  and  selenitous 
clay,  acquires  interest,  as  it  developes  itself  in  other  localities. 
Its  thickness  is  variable.  I  have  found  it  twenty  feet  thick  ; 
and  its  strata  are  divided  by  thin  layers  of  a  more  indurated 
white  clay.     In  these  several  stages,  the  seleniferous  clay, 


GEOLOGY  219 

of  a  yellowish  color  at  the  bottom,  becomes  black  and  more 
foliated  in  its  superior  beds.  The  selenitc  is  more  abun- 
dant, replacing,  as  it  were,  the  white  indurated  clay. 

"  The  specimens  of  selenitc  obtained  from  this  division  of 
the  Dixon  group  are  worthy  of  notice,  in  consequence  of  the 
peculiar  forms  that  they  assume — some  of  them  presenting 
the  appearance  of  leaves  of  trees,  beautifully  and  gracefully 
scolloped ;  which  has  encouraged  me  to  venture  upon  a 
descriptive  name,  as  a  mineralogical  variety,  by  which  to 
designate  them.  I  call  them  phylloidal  sclenite.  Others  are 
in  the  usual  shape  of  six-sided  regular  prisms,  '  en  fer  de 
lance,"  lanciform,  radiating,  &;c. 

"  4lli.  The  rock  designated  as  D  is  the  last  member  of  the 
trans-Missisipian  cretaceous  formation,  as  it  presents  itself  on 
the  Missouri  River.  It  is  a  vast  deposit  of  plastic  clay,  about 
two  hundred  feet  thick,  which  may  be  considered,  however, 
divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  a  stratum  of  argillaceous  car- 
bonate of  lime  in  nodules,  of  which  I  had  no  occasion  to 
ascertain  the  thickness.  Many  of  these  nodules,  having 
fallen  from  their  original  position,  are  met  with  in  consider- 
able quantities  in  the  beds  of  the  ravines,  and  in  other 
places.  Associated  with  it  is  a  ferruginous  sandstone, 
which  presents  itself  in  flat  polygons,  on  the  surface  of  which 
there  are  seen  numerous  concentric  lines  of  great  regularity, 
so  as  to  imitate  the  transverse  sections  of  a  tree.  The  same 
deposit  contains,  disseminated  through  it,  lumps  of  the  yel- 
lowish clay  of  the  inferior  stratum,  C,  and  enclosing  leaves 
of  selenite,  and  cavities  lined  with  concretionary  gypsum. 
]5ut  these  lumps  are  more  frequent  in  the  lower  half  of  the 
depositc  than  in  the  upper,  and  fuially  cease  altogether  to 
appear. 

"  There  are  also  found,  throughout  the  clay  deposit,  loose 


\ 


220  APPENDIX. 

pieces  of  limestone,  the  origin  of  which  I  will  not  attempt  to 
assign  precisely,  though  they  may  have  belonged  to  subordi- 
nate beds  of  this  rock,  that  exist  somewhere  in  this  forma- 
tion. I  have  collected  some  myself ;  others  were  brought 
to  me  by  my  men  ;  and,  as  a  notification  to  future  geologists 
who  may  travel  over  this  region,  I  signalize  them  by  their 
mineralogical  characters. 

"  1.  A  cylindrical  hmestone,  resembling  arragonite. 

"  2.  Limestone  of  loose  texture,  yellow,  crossed  by  small 
and  numerous  veins  of  calcareous  spar. 

"  3.  Limestone  of  a  greyish  color,  with  veins  of  calcareous 
spar,  and  invested  occasionally  by  dog-tooth  spar.  [C.  carb. 
metastastique  of  Haiiy.] 

"  4.  Greyish  limestone,  with  veins  of  calcareous  spar. 

"The  inferior  members  of  the  group  that  I  have  just 
described  contain,  it  is  true,  but  rare  and  indistinct  organic 
remains.  But  no  richer  field  could  be  offered  to  the  fossil 
conchologist  than  that  presented  by  the  upper  portions  of  the 
plastic  clay — by  the  variety,  the  abundance,  and  the  beauty 
of  the  specimens,  being  nearly  all  new  species  of  ammonites, 
baculites,  belemnites,  hipponyx,  cytherea,  tellina,  inoceramus, 
&c.  The  species,  however,  which,  from  its  abundance,  and 
the  different  signs  under  which  it  is  found,  would  seem  to  me 
to  characterize  the  whole  formation,  is  the  inoceramus  bara- 
bini  of  Morton. 

"  This  cretaceous  formation  may  be  considered,  I  believe, 
as  fairly  exhibiting  the  characteristic  features  in  the  geology 
of  the  Missouri,  over  an  extent  of  country  more  than  400 
miles  in  length  by  water,  starting  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Sioux  River,  which  latter  river  is  795  miles  from  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  former  with  the  Missisippi,  to  the  approach  of  the 
Shayen,  which  I  have  laid  down  on  my  map  as  the  Washtey, 
or  Good  River  of  the  Sioux.     It  will  be  readily  conceived 


/ 


GEOLOGY.  221 

that,  as  the  level  of  the  valley  of  the  Missouri  gradually  rises, 
there  is  a  corresponding  depression   in  that  of  the  formation. 
But  what  remains  of  it  at  the  spot  where  I  left  it,  conjoined  to 
information  gathered,  leads  me  to  suppose  that  other  traces 
of  it  will  be  found,  perhaps,  not  f^ir  from  the  Yellow  Stone 
River;  so  that  its  whole  extent  along  the  Missouri,  in  a 
generally  NW.  course,  would  be  no  less  than  1,000  miles. 
As  to  its  western  limits,  without  pretending  to  define  these 
positively,  I  may  state  that  I  have  in  my  possession  interest- 
ing fragments   of   ammonite  placenta  and  baculite   ovatus, 
brought  to  me  from  the  clay-banks  of  the  upper  part  of 
Shayen  and  White  Rivers.     It  is,  therefore,  probable  that 
the  extent  of  the  formation,  due  W.,  is  not  less  than  250  miles 
by  water,  along  which  it  is,  probably,  open  to  examination. 

"  The  plateau  of  the  Coteau  des  Prairies  is  composed,  in 
a  great  measure,  of  the  materials  belonging  to  what  I  have 
named  the  erratic  deposit,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  nature  of 
its  soil,  the  physiognomy  of  the  ridges  and  hillocks  that 
diversify  its  surface,  the  deep  ravines  by  which  it  is  flanked, 
and  the  innumerable  erratic  blocks  strewed  over  the  borders 
of  its  lakes. 

"  We  have  no  data  by  which  to  determine  the  inferior 
limits  of  this  deposit ;  still,  there  is  reason  to  think  it  rests 
upon  such  primary  rocks  as  show  themselves  along  the  line 
of  rapids  of  the  Upper  St.  Peter's,  consisting  of  granite, 
sienitic,  and  other  metamorphic  rocks.  Nevertheless,  over 
the  vast  extent  of  this  plateau,  there  is,  apparently,  but  one 
spot  where  the  subjacent  rock  makes  its  appearance — and 
this  is  at  the  Indian  Red  Pipestone  Quarry,  so  called. 

*'  The  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  form  the  limits  of  the  calca- 
reous deposit  that  characterizes  the  shores  of  the  Missi- 
sippi  from  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin.  The  rocky  forma- 
tions then  assume  another  type,  being  the  several  varieties 


222  APPENDIX. 

of  oreen  stone,  and  finally  passing  into  talcose  slate,  which  is 
visible  at  the  falls  of  the  Wabezi,  or  Swan  River,  and  the 
Omoshkos,  or  Elk  River,  near  their  entrances. 

"  The  most  prominent  geological  feature  of  the  country,  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  river,  a  little  below  the  Pikwabik,  is 
a  large  mass  in  situ  of  a  sienitic  rock,  with  flesh-colored 
felspar,  extending  a  mile  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of  half  a 
mile,  and  an  elevation  of  eighty  feet,  known  as  the  Little 
Rock.  Higher  up,  and  still  on  the  same  side  of  the  river, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Knife  Rapids,  there  are  sources  that  trans- 
port a  very  fine,  brilliant,  and  bluish  sand,  accompanied  by 
a  soft  and  unctuous  matter.  This  appears  to  be  the  result 
of  a  decomposition  of  a  steaschist,  probably  interposed 
between  the  sienitic  rocks  previously  mentioned.  The  same 
thing  is  observed  at  the  mouths  of  Wabezi  and  Omoshkos 
Rivers. 

*'  The  geological  features  of  the  country,  in  the  ascent  of 
the  Missisippi,  from  the  St.  Peter's  to  the  Falls  of  St.  An- 
thony, are  as  follows  ; 

"1.  Fine  gi'ained,  unstratified  sandstone,  constituting  the 
base  of  the  blulT,  and  ranging  in  thickness  between  sixty  and 
eighty  feet,  of  a  very  frial)le  character  ;  each  grain  being  a 
crystalline  fragment  of  quartz.  In  some  parts  of  the  mass 
the  grains  are  stained  with  oxide  of  iron ;  while  in  others 
they  are  perfectly  white.  It  is  probable  that  the  sand  fur- 
nished by  the  latter  would  serve  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 

"  2.  A  compact  sublamellar  limestone  of  variable  colors, 
as  fawn,  yellowish-buff,  or  greyish.  It  contains  many  fos- 
sils, but  very  irregularly  distributed  in  the  mass  ;  some  being 
covered  with  brilliant  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
others  entirely  mineralized.  This  bed  is  from  eight  to  twelve 
feet  thick,  weathering  into  layers  of  from  two  inches  to  a 
foot  thick.     The  limestone   mider  consideration   resembles 


r 


GEOLOGY.  223 

much,  in  mincralogical  characters,  that  wliich  has  been 
named  cHff  hmestonc  by  Dr.  Locke  in  his  Report  on  the 
Geology  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  and  which  has  been  more 
recently  again  described  by  Dr.  Owen  in  his  Report  on  the 
Mineral  Region  of  Illinois  and  of  Iowa.  Should  the  two 
rocks  be  identical,  No.  2  of  the  preceding  section  would  then 
be  tlie  equivalent  of  the  Western  blue  limestone  of  these 
geologists  ;  with  the  difference,  that  the  two  rocks  are  here 
less  developed  than  in  the  other  localities  observed  by  them. 

"  3.  Soil,  consisting  of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay,  mixed  with 
the  disintegration  of  the  limestone  in  place,  and  amidst 
wliich  there  are  erratic  blocks  scattered  over  tlie  plains  and 
on  the  slopes  on  the  hills,  and  which  are  traced  to  the  sum- 
mits of  the  Pilot  Knob. 

*'  As  it  is  important,  in  geology,  to  determine  the  precise 
limits  of  formations,  I  shall  add  a  few  words  on  this  subject. 
The  geological  formation  of  St.  Peter's  continues  to  show 
itself  in  the  river  of  the  same  name,  and  goes  on  thinning 
out  as  far  as  Waraju  Rivci  (the  riviere  aux  Liards  of  the 
French),  and  there  it  disappears.  Hence  it  passes  to  the 
head-waters  of  Mankato  River,  crosses  the  southern  part  of 
the  Coteau  des  Prairies,  and  finally  loses  itself  in  the  Mis- 
souri, Sioux,  and  Iowa  Rivers,  as  previously  explained  when 
describing  the  extent  of  the  cretaceous  formation." 

Mr.  Keating,  tlie  geologist  of  Long's  second  expedition, 
gives  tlie  following  description  of  a  portion  of  country  east 
of  the  river  : — 

"  On  the  banks  of  this  stream"  (the  Wassemon,  one  of  the 
upper  branches  of  the  Pectanon,  as  called  by  Long,  or  Peck- 
tonica,  as  called  by  the  Indians)  "  we  observed  the  lime- 
stone in  place,  forming  cliffs  of  about  filly  feet  in  height. 
The  rock  is  in  very  distinct  horizontal  stratification  ;  its 
structure   is  in  many   parts  crystalline,  or    perhaps  it  may 


224  APPENDIX. 

more  properly  be  called  gravelly  and  sandy.  It  contains 
many  cells  or  cavities,  some  of  w^hich  are  filled  with  crys- 
tallizations of  carbonate  of  lime :  much  white  hornstone 
appears  disseminated  throughout  the  mass.  The  hornstone 
is  sometimes  seen  to  constitute  small  beds  or  layers  from  one 
to  three  or  four  inches  in  thickness,  which  are  continued  for 
several  feet  in  length ;  frequently  also  appearing  under  the 
form  of  flattened  irregular  nodules  lying  in  an  almost  con- 
tinuous line  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  with  their  long 
or  flattened  side  parallel  to  the  stratification  ;  resembling  in 
this  respect  the  disposition  of  the  clay-iron  stone  in  the  slaty 
strata  that  accompany  the  bituminous  coal.  Organic  remains 
are  by  no  means  uncommon,  though  they  are  not  found  as 
abundantly  as  in  some  other  spots  of  our  route.  They  con- 
sist of  terebratulites,  encrinites,  and  a  madreporite  (Linne) ; 
the  true  nature  of  the  last  of  these  could  not  be  ascertained 
without  a  comparison  of  characters,  which  we  were  unable 
to  make  on  the  spot,  and  which  the  loss  of  all  the  specimens 
collected  between  Fort  Wayne  and  Fort  St.  Anthony,  has 
prevented  Mr.  Say  from  making  since  ;  the  rock  is  of  a 
greyish  yellow  color,  with  a  loose  structure.  We  are  aware 
that  some  of  the  characters  which  we  have  given  of  this  rock 
might  lead  to  the  opinion  that  it  resembles  the  mountain  or 
carboniferous  limestone  of  Messrs.  Conybeare  and  Phillips  ; 
and  consequently  that  it  is  the  same  as  the  metalliferous 
limestone  of  other  geologists  ;  but  we  would  consider  this 
opinion  as  a  very  hasty,  not  to  say,  an  incorrect  one.  Although 
its  cavernous  nature,  its  indication  of  crystalUzation,  and  its 
organic  remains,  present  an  apparent  correspondence  with 
those  of  that  limestone  as  described  by  the  Rev.  W.  D. 
Conybeare  in  the  excellent  '  Outlines  of  the  Geology  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales'  (part  i.,  p.  353),  we  incline  to  the  opinion 
that  this  rock  is  of  a  much  later  formation  ;  we  believe  it  to 


GEOLOGY.  225 

be  connected  willi  a  limestone  which  was  subsequently 
observed  in  the  Missisippi,  between  Prairie  J)u  Chien  and 
St.  Anthony,  and  in  which  we  observed  an  oolite  and  a  pul- 
verulent limestone  similar  to  the  calcareous  ashes  described 
by  Mr.  Freisleben  in  his  elaborate  account  of  the  formations 
of  Thuringen.  If  we  compare  the  characters  of  this  rock 
with  those  of  the  limestone  observed  by  Mr.  Freisleben,  and 
described  by  him  under  the  name  of  zechstein  and  rauch- 
wack^,  we  will  be  surprised  at  the  great  similarity  in  their 
appearance.  The  zechstein  is  a  compact,  hard  and  tough 
limestone  of  an  ash-grey  color,  passing  into  blackish-grey, 
distinctly  stratified,  without  however  presenting  any  slaly 
appearance,  or,  at  least,  much  less  so  than  the  inferior  beds. 
It  contains  specks  and  some  veins  of  calcareous  spar  and 
gypsum;  also  crystals  of  quartz,  &c.  :  it  likewise  offers 
sometimes  specks  of  galena.  It  generally  presents  but  few 
petrifactions.  Corallites  and  millepores,  as  well  as  several 
species  of  terebratulites,  ammonites,  &c.,  have  been  found 
in  it. 

"  Above  this  compact  limestone  another  stratum  of  calca- 
reous rock  is  found,  which  is  known  in  the  country  under  the 
name  of  rauchwacko  (smoky  wackfe).  It  is  a  limestone  pro- 
bably intermixed  with  silex,  of  a  dark  grey,  sometimes 
blackish  color,  with  a  somewhat  scaly  fracture,  occasionally 
fine-grained,  sometimes,  tiiough  seldom,  oolitic,  hard,  tough, 
and  filled  with  pores  or  cavities  :  this  last  feature  is  charac- 
teristic. It  may  be  observed  even  in  those  parts  of  the 
stratum  which  appear  most  compact.  The  cavities  arc 
angidar,  long  and  narrow  (as  in  a  cracked  clay).  The  inte- 
rior of  the  cavities  is  lined  with  small  crystals  of  calc-spar. 
These  cavities  are  sometimes  large,  being  several  yards  in 
length  and  breadth,     lie  afterwards  proceeds  to  describe  the 

ashes  or  pulverulent  suljslancc  found  near  it.     This,  from  its 

11* 


226  APPENDIX. 

great  similarity  to  the  residue  of  the  combustion  of  wood,  is 
designated  in  Germany  by  the  name  of  asche  (ashes). 
These  characters,  when  taken  into  connection,  appear  to  us 
to  correspond  so  well  with  those  observed  on  the  Wassemon, 
on  the  Missisippi,  and  throughout  the  country  between  Rock 
River  and  Prairie  Du  Chien,  that  we  feel  strongly  induced 
to  consider  the  limestone  of  this  country  as  analogous  to  that 
observ^ed  by  Mr.  Freisleben.  This  limestone  is,  by  some 
European  continental  geologists,  referred  to  the  Lias  of 
English  geologists  ;  but  we  would  rather  refer  it,  with 
Messrs.  Conybeare  and  Phillips,  to  the  newer  magnesian  or 
conglomerate  limestone  of  England.  To  this  we  think  it 
has  the  strongest  analogy.  It  is  probably  connected,  as  we 
have  already  intimated,  with  the  limestone  situated  above  the 
coal  fields  of  Wheeling  and  Zanesville.  It  extends  over 
those  parts  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  where  salt  has  been  found. 
It  is  observed  cellular,  cavernous,  &c.,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Wassemon.  It  is  connected  with  real  calcareous  ashes  on 
the  Missisippi.  The  presence  of  the  oolite  which  was  ob- 
served here  in  a  single  spot,  does  not  militate  against  the 
position  which  we  have  taken,  as  we  find  it  stated  by  Cony- 
beare and  Phillips  (page  302)  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Wynch, 
that  the  magnesian  limestone  is  occasionally  oolitic.  It  pre- 
sents, in  many  of  its  points,  the  characters  of  the  raucli- 
wacke,  and  especially  the  cellular  or  cavernous  structure. 
It  is  seldom  found  very  abundantly  strewed  with  organic 
remains.  Its  color  is  the  pale  buff,  passing  to  the  ash-grey. 
In  fine,  the  more  attentively  we  examine  it,  the  more  closely 
do  we  find  it  to  connect  itself  with  the  formations  of  Thurin- 
gen,  and  with  those  which  cover  so  extensive  a  part  of  Eng- 
land, and  more  particularly  witli  that  observed  in  Yorkshire 
by  Professor  Buckland ;  offering  thus,  as  it  appears  to  us, 
a  beautiful  confirmation  of  the  analogy  established  between 


GEOLOGY.  227 

the  various  kinds  of  tliis  limestone  oliserved  in  (Iiv(ms  parts 
of  Europe.  There  is  an  experiment  which  would,  as  we 
conceive,  place  the  matter  beyond  a  doubt  :  this  would  be 
an  analysis  of  the  limestone,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the 
quantity  of  magnesia  w^hich  it  contains,  and  we  regret  nuich 
that  the  loss  of  our  specimens  has  deprived  us  of  the  oppor- 
tunity of  this  analysis.  But  we  think  the  case  sufficiently 
-  strong  to  justify  us  in  considering  this  as  the  formation  cor- 
responding to  tlie  magncsian  limestone  of  England,  and  to 

the  rauchwacke  and  zechstein  of  Thuringen. 

****** 

"  The  features  which  we  observed  from  the  Wasscmon  to 
the  Wisconsin  are  extremely  interesting.  At  a  distance  of  a 
few  miles  northwest  of  the  former  stream,  the  vegetation 
presented  a  sudden  and  striking  change,  announcing  a  cor- 
responding one  in  the  geological  character  of  the  country. 
We  ascended  a  rough,  steep,  and  hilly  ground,  which  was 
covered  with  heavy  timber,  and  with  a  very  thick  underwood, 
consisting  principally  of  young  oak  and  aspen.  This  thick 
brushwood  continued  for  about  two  miles,  wdien  w^e  struck 
the  bank  of  a  small  stream  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its 
scenery,  which  differed  from  any  that  we  had  hitherto  met 
with.  The  brook  runs  in  a  deep  and  narrow  glen,  the  sides 
of  which  are  very  steep,  and,  in  some  places,  vertical. 
They  are  covered,  at  their  summit,  with  a  dense  vegetation, 
which  extends  over  the  edge  of  the  rock,  and  imparts  a 
cliaracter  of  austerity  and  of  gloom  to  this  secluded  valley, 
which  hnds  not  its  parallel  in  any  that  we  recollect  ever  to 
have  seen.*     The  dark  color  which  the  water  receives  from 

•  This  stream  is  an  upper  branch  of  the  Pcctanon,  on  its  fight  bank, 
about  8'  south  of  lat.  43°.  It  may  not  be  easily  comprehended  by  some  of 
our  readers,  how  a  valley  exceeding  all  others  in  austerity  and  gloom  could 
be  remarkable  for  the  beauty  uf  its  scenery.     We  are  quoting  only  the 


228  APPENDIX. 

the  deep  shadows  cast  by  the  high,  steep  bank  and  its  over- 
hanging vegetation,  forms  a  pleasing  rehef  to  the  glare,  so 
uniformly  fatiguing,  of  the  unsheltered  prairie.  This  spot 
conveyed  so  much  relief  to  the  eye  and  to  the  mind,  that  the 
party  could  not  repress  their  delight  on  beholding  it.  The 
geologist  who  connects  a  change  in  the  nature  of  the  subja- 
cent rock,  with  a  diversity  in  the  character  of  the  country,  or 
its  vegetation,  would  naturally  find  an  explanation  for  the* 
new  features  which  the  country  assumes,  by  observing  that 
the  high  banks  of  this  glen  are  formed  of  sandstone  rocks, 
the  nature  of  which  we  had  an  opportunity  of  studying  with 
attention  during  a  great  part  of  our  journey  of  the  18th  of 
June.  We  obsen^ed  that  the  sandstone  is  distinctly  super- 
posed to  the  limestone  ;  that  it  constitutes,  upon  it,  hills 
which  vary  from  30  to  100  feet  and  upAvards  ;  these  hills 
are  divided  by  valleys,  in  the  bottom  of  which  the  limestone 
reappears  in  place.  The  sides  of  the  hills  are  steep,  and  but 
few  indications  of  stratification  are  observable,  except  where 
the  valley  is  partly  excavated  in  the  limestone  itself ;  in 
which  case  the  lower  part  of  the  hill  is  less  steep,  but  pre- 
sents a  distinct  stratification.  The  line  of  superposition  of 
the  sandstone  over  the  limestone  may  also  be  traced  with 
considerable  accuracy,  by  the  examination  of  the  vegetation. 
Whenever  the  latter  rock  prevails,  the  surface  is  even  and 
smooth,  or  modified  by  gentle  swells  covered  with  a  thick 
and  long  grass,  and  forming  an  uniform  fine  green,  meadow- 
like country,  while  the  sandstone  invariably  imparts  to  tlie 
surface  an  asperity  which  is  as  distinct  as  the  vigorous  growth 
of  trees  with  which  it  is  covered,  and  as  its  abundant  under- 
growth which  denotes  a  strong  and  productive  soil,  having  a 
tendency  to  bear  heavy  forests. 

geological  facts  of  the  author,  and  our  readers  are  at  liberty  to  differ  in 
matters  of  taste. 


GEOLOGY.  229 

"  The  rock  is  a  white  sandstone  formed  of  fragments  of 
fine  transparent  and  colorless  quartz,  united  l)y  a  cement, 
which,  in  some  parts,  appears  to  be  ferruginous,  while,  in 
others,  it  is  colorless,  and  probably  of  a  calcareous  nature. 
In  some  parts  the  cement  is  quite  invisible,  and  would  almost 
lead  to  the  belief  that  the  union  of  the  grains  was  a  crystal- 
line one.  Til  is  sandstone  appears  in  fragments  or  tatters, 
and  constitutes  the  remains  of  a  formation  which  probably 
covered  the  whole  of  the  limestone,  at  least  in  this  part  of 
the  country.  That  it  is  above  the  limestone  no  doubt  can 
exist  in  our  minds,  as  we  saw  the  immediate  superposition.  It 
sometimes  appears,  it  is  true,  to  sink  below  the  level  of  that 
rock,  and  this  led  us,  at  first,  to  apprehend  that  there  miglit 
be  an  alternation  of  strata,  but  a  careful  examination  of  all 
these  spots  has  left  no  doubt  in  our  minds,  that  in  these 
cases  the  sandstone  is  deposited  in  coves  or  valleys  formed  in 
the  limestone  previous  to  the  deposition  of  the  sandstone. 
The  cases  are,  however,  not  common,  and  we  may  safely 
state,  as  a  general  rule,  that  not  only  the  sandstone  is  rela- 
tively above  the  limestone,  but  that  it  is  even,  in  almost  all 
cases,  at  a  greater  absolute  elevation,  and  the  spot  at  which 
we  first  met  with  it,  west  of  the  Wassemon,  was  considera- 
bly elevated  above  the  usual  level  of  the  limestone  ;  for 
wherever  the  sandstone  has  retained  its  position,  it  has  pro- 
tected the  limestone  against  decomposition,  and  hence,  in 
such  places,  the  latter  rock  still  continues  to  rise  to  a  higher 
level  than  where  it  is  laid  bare,  and  exposed  to  the  destruc- 
tive influence  of  atmospherical  agents.  We  also  observed 
very  distinctly,  that  while  the  valleys  formed  in  the  limestone 
at  a  time  anterior  to  the  deposition  of  the  sandstone  were 
few,  those  produced  subsequently  were  numerous,  as  was 
indicated  by  the  great  rougiiness  and  unevcnness  of  the  sand 


230  APPENDIX. 

stone  country,  and  by  the  many  undulations  in  the  uncovered 
limestone  which  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention. 
From  the  observations  made  on  the  18th,  it  was  thought  very 
probable  that  all  the  hills  observed  at  a  distance  on  the  17th, 
were  formed  of  this  sandstone  ;  and  from  some  characters 
which  had  appeared  at  the  time  to  present  an  anomaly  it  was 
inferred  that  the  Enneshoteno  or  Twin  Mountains,  near 
which  we  had  passed  that  day  without  stopping,  were  proba- 
bly also  remains  of  the  general  sandstone  formation  which 
extended  over  the  whole  country.  No  organic  remains  were 
observed  in  the  sandstone,  or  in  the  limestone  which  under- 
lays it,  but  no  doubt  can  exist  that  they  may  contain  some, 
and  that  the  limestone  probably  contains  many. 

"  Proceeding  towards  the  Wisconsin,  the  country  presents 
an  alternation  of  rolling  and  undulated  prairie,  interspersed 
with  hills  composed  of  either  one  or  the  other  of  these  rocks. 
The  sandstone  is  found  in  most  places  to  be  covered  with 
thin,  flattened  fragments  of  a  stone  differing  in  its  nature 
and  texture  from  the  character  of  the  other  rocks,  whether 
of  limestone  or  sandstone.  These  fragmenls  are  generally 
observed  to  vary  from  three  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  from 
two  to  eight  in  breadth,  and  from  one  quarter  to  one  inch  in 
thickness.  They  present  appearances  of  having  been  wea- 
thered, but  not  of  having  been  rolled.  They  are  very  abun- 
dant, and  we  could  account  for  them  in  no  other  way  than  by 
admitting  that  they  were  the  remains,  probably  the  harder 
parts  of  a  stratum  that  had  at  one  time  covered  the  sand- 
stone, but  that  had  disappeared  almost  entirely,  leaving  only 
these  fragments  to  attest  its  former  existence  and  situation. 
On  examining  these  fragments  with  care,  we  found  thciii  to 
be  very  uniform  in  their  characters.  Their  composition  is, 
in  great  measure,  calcareous,  but  from  their  greater  hardness 


GEOLOGY.  231 

wc  consider  it  as  partly  siliceous.*  They  arc  replete  with 
organic  remains.  They  are  principally  rcferrihle  to  the  pro- 
duct.Ti,  terebratulae,  &cc.  We  saw  none  but  what  belonged 
to  bivalves.  The  existence  of  these  fragments  was  observed 
upon  many  elevations,  over  a  considerable  extent  of  coun- 
try, while  in  the  valleys  no  trace  of  them  could  l)c  seen. 
Generalizing  the  observations  made  during  the  three  last  days 
of  our  journey  previous  to  our  arrival  on  the  Missisippi,  we 
arc  led  to  admit  that  there  are,  or  rather  that  there  were  for- 
merly, two  distinct  formations  of  limestone  in  this  country, 
and  that  they  were  separated  by  a  thick  stratum  of  sand- 
stone. Of  these  two  limestone  formations,  the  older  one, 
which  we  have  already  described  with  minuteness,  we  have 
been  induced  to  consider  as  coeval  with,  or  analogous  to,  the 
magnesian  limestone  of  England.  The  superior  formation 
is  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  of  its  containing  harder 
fragments  or  nodules  of  limestone,  which  alone  remain  to 
establish  the  fact  of  its  former  existence  :  that  it  contained 
no  hornstone  or  flinty  quartz,  as  observed  in  the  former,  we 
are  led  to  believe,  because  had  they  existed,  they  must 
necessarily  have  resisted  decomposition,  as  well  or  better 
than  the  calcareous  nodules  which  are  now  found  alone. 
Thd  much  greater  abundance  of  shells  in  these  nodules,  and 
the  total  absence  of  the  madreporitcs,  appear  to  us  to  be  very 
characteristic  distinctions  between  these  and  the  underlaying 
limestone,  though  perhaps  too  much  weight  ought  not  to  be 
assigned  to  the  absence  of  the  madreporitcs,  as  these,  from 
their  loose  and  more  porous  texture,  may  have  been  unable 
to  resist  the  decomposing  causes  which  appear  to  have 
affected  this  formation.     In  some  places  a  limestone  bed  was 

*■  There  are  localities  occasionally  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  where  the 
surface  of  the  ground  for  a  small  distance  is  covered  with  these  chert 
fragments. 


232  APPENDIX. 

observed  upon  the  sandstone,  but  these  depositions  were  so 
partial,  and  in  all  cases  the  ground  was  so  much  overgrowTi 
with  bushes,  that  we  were  unable  to  examine  their  charac- 
ters with  any  degree  of  minuteness.  This  striking  differ- 
ence, however,  we  observed,  and  we  are  led  to  consider  it  as 
constant,  that  the  inferior  limestone,  wherever  it  appears 
exposed,  is  covered  with  small  scales  or  fragments  of  the 
hornstone  nodules  whose  existence  has  already  been  alluded 
to,  while  none  of  the  flat  calcareous  fragments,  abounding  in 
shells,  are  found  upon  it  ;  whereas  these  were  uniformly 
observed  to  the  exclusion  of  the  scales  of  hornstone  upon 
the  surface  of  the  calcareous  stratum  that  overlays  the  sand- 
stone." 

Mr.  Keating  gives  the  following  further  account  of  his 
examination  of  the  St.  Peter's  : — 

"  The  bluff  upon  which  the  fort  is  built  offers  a  good  oppor- 
tunity for  observing  the  geological  structure  of  the  country. 
It  consists  of  several  strata,  all  disposed  in  parallel  and  hori- 
zontal superposition.  On  the  surface  of  the  ground  blocks 
of  limestone  are  found,  which  appear  to  be  the  remains  of  a 
stratum  that  has,  in  great  measure,  disappeared.  These  are, 
in  most  cases,  of  a  compact  and  earthy  texture,  destitute  of 
any  organic  remains,  exhibiting  occasional  specks  of  a  crys- 
talline nature,  which  are  observed  to  be  calcareous,  as,  not- 
withstandmg  their  small  volume,  they  present  a  distinct 
rhombohedral  cleavage.  The  first  stratum  which  is  observed 
is  about  eight  feet  thick.  It  is  formed  of  limestone,  present- 
ing a  very  distinct  slaty  stmcture.  The  texture  of  the  rock 
is  compact,  its  fracture  splinteiy  and  uneven.  Organic 
remains  abound  in  it.  These  are,  as  far  as  we  saw,  exclu- 
sively producti.  They  lie  in  the  rock  as  thick  as  possible. 
A  small  vacant  space  is  generally  observed  between  the  inner 
and  the  outer  casts  of  the  sliell.     This  is,  however,  generally 


GEOLOGY.  233 

filled  up  with  a  crystallizalioii  of  calcareous  spar.  The  form 
of  the  crystals  cannot  be  made  out,  on  account  of  their 
extreme  tenuity.  The  color  of  this  limestone,  as  well  as  of 
the  loose  blocks  found  upon  it,  is  a  light  gi-eyish-yellow. 
This  stratum  rests  upon  another  calcareous  bed,  whicli  differs 
from  the  preceding,  in  the  total  absence  of  organic  remains, 
and  in  its  color,  which  is  of  a  light  blue.  Its  structure  is 
more  compact ;  so  is  its  fracture.  Its  horizontal  stratifica- 
tion is  distinct,  but,  the  stratum  being  thicker,  it  is  more  sus- 
ceptible of  being  used  in  building.  It  produces,  in  fact,  an 
excellent  stone,  which  admits  of  being  hewn,  and  which  is 
the  chief  material  used  in  the  construction  of  the  fort.  This 
bed  IS  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  thick.  When  examined 
with  the  microscope,  the  rock  presents  very  general  signs  of 
crystallization,  its  texture  becomes  sub-saccharoidal,  and 
veins  of  calcspar,  of  an  inconsiderable  thickness,  traverse  it 
in  every  direction.  There  are,  also,  cavities  in  which  crys- 
tals of  carbonate  of  lime  are  distinctly  seen.  Independent 
of  the  building-stone  which  it  yields,  this  bed  is  likewise 
valuable  as  producing  the  best  lime  of  any  found  in  the 
vicinity.  Immediately  under  this  bed  of  limestone,  in  paral- 
lel stratification,  we  observed  the  sandstone,  which  consti- 
tutes the  principal  mass  of  the  bluff,  being  about  sixty  feet  in 
thickness.  It  is  a  very  friable  stone,  and,  in  some  cases,  the 
grains  of  which  it  is  formed  are  so  loosely  united,  that  it 
appears  almost  hke  sand.  Every  fragment,  if  examined  witli 
care,  seems  to  be  a  regular  crystal,  and  we  incline  much  to 
the  opinion  that  this  sandstone  must  have  been  formed  by  a 
chemical  precipitation,  and  not  by  a  mere  mechanical  deposi- 
tion. The  process  of  its  formation  may  have  been  a  very 
rapid  one,  such  as  is  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  salt; 
and  to  this  may  be  attributed  the  circumstance  of  its 
loose  texture.     The  grain  is  very  fine.     Its  color  is  white, 


234  APPENDIX. 

sometimes  a  little  yellowish,  in  which  case  it  resembles  in 
texture,  color,  &c.,  the  finer  varieties  of  Muscovado  sugar. 
The  loose  texture  of  the  rock  is,  probably,  the  cause  of  its 
presenting  but  few  indications  of  stratification.  The  rock 
which  we  have  just  described  rests  upon  a  slaty  limestone, 
which  has  a  striped  aspect ;  the  stripes  or  zones  are  curved. 
This  limestone  appears  to  be  very  argillaceous,  and  is  a  little 
softer  than  the  preceding  ;  its  structure  is  quite  earthy ;  it 
effervesces  strongly  in  nitric  acid  ;  its  color  is  a  light  yellow. 
The  thickness  of  this  bed  is  about  ten  feet.  Below  this, 
another  stratum  of  limestone  is  found,  w^hich  imbeds  small 
black  pebbles  of  quartz,  and  assumes,  therefore,  in  a  slight 
degree,  the  character  of  a  pudding-stone,  or  conglomerate. 
Its  grain  is  more  crystaUine  than  that  of  the  preceding 
stratum.  It  is  filled  with  small  cavities,  probably  the  result 
of  a  contraction  during  the  consoHdation  of  the  mass.  Its 
color  varies  from  a  bluish  to  a  yellowish-grey.  This  stratum 
is  about  seven  feet  thick.  It  rises  but  four  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  water,  and  the  only  rock  visible  under  it  is  another 
variety  of  limestone,  which  differs  from  the  preceding,  inas- 
much as  its  grain  is  much  finer  and  its  texture  more  earthy. 
It  is  only  visible  for  four  feet.  The  bed  of  the  river  appears 
to  be  excavated  near  the  fort  in  this  stratum  of  limestone. 
Neither  of  these  limestone  formations,  under  the  sandstone, 
contains  any  traces  of  organic  remains.  If  we  consider  the 
three  inferior  beds  of  limestone  as  being  modifications  of  the 
same  formation,  as  we,  doubtless,  ought  to  do,  then  we  shall 
find  this  bluff  to  be  composed  of  three  different  formations — 
a  superior  one  of  lime,  with  abundant  impressions  of  shells  in 
one  of  its  beds  ;  an  intermediate  one  of  sandstone  ;  and  an 
inferior,  calcareous  formation,  without  any  organic  remains. 
The  latter  certainly  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  limestone 


GEOLOGY.  235 

found  on  llic  Wassemon,  though  wc  arc  unwilling  to  pro- 
nounce upon  their  identity. 

•  ***••• 

"  It  would  remain  for  us,  in  order  to  complete  this  view 
of  the  geology  of  the  Falls,  to  inquire  whether  the  limestone 
observed  at  the  falls  corresponds  with  that  superior  to  the 
sandstone  south  of  the  Wisconsin  ;  and  if  that  found  near  the 
level  of  the  river  at  the  fort  be  analogous  to  that  observed 
under  the  sandstone  between  the  Wisconsin  and  Wassemon. 
We  shall  not  ■  affect  a  degree  of  certainty  which  we  do  not 
possess,  but  we  may  be  permitted  to  advance  an  opinion  that 
the  sandstone  is  probably  of  analogous  formation,  and  that, 
therefore,  the  strata  of  limestone  which  we  found  at  the  Falls 
correspond  w^ith  that  stratum,  of  whose  existence,  at  a  former 
period,  between  the  Wassemon  and  Wisconsin,  w^e  think  we 
have  evident  proofs.  We  have  in  our  possession  specimens 
taken  in  botli  places,  filled  with,  apparently,  the  same  organic 
remains,  and  exhibiting  characters  in  the  rock  which  corre- 
spond as  well  as  could  be  expected  from  pieces  collected  at 
three  hundred  miles'  distance  from  each  other." — Long'^s  2d 
Eayed.,  vol.  i.,  p.  306,  ct  seq. 


Extracts  from  the  Report  of  a  Geological  Eocploration  in 
part,  of  loica,  Wisconsin  and  Illinois.     Bv  D.  D.  Owen. 

"  Throughout  the  Western  States,  generally,  the  secondary 
formation  prevails,  covered  up  in  various  locations,  some- 
times to  a  considerable  depth,  by  recent  alluvial  and  diluvial 
deposits. 

"  This  secondary  series  of  rocks  comprehends  various  sub- 
divisions of  distinct  character  and  invariable  succession, 
which,  in  their  turn,  have  been  again  subdivided. 


236  APPENDIX. 

"  Of  these  groups,  the  mountain  Hmestone  particularly 
claims  our  attention,  as  almost  all  the  rocks  of  Iowa  and 
Wisconsin  are  referrible  to  that  subdivision. 

"  In  the  western  States,  above-mentioned,  these  subdivi- 
sions generally  vary  in  thickness  from  one  hundred  to  one 
thousand  feet,  with  the  exception  of  the  cliff  limestone, 
which,  in  some  districts,  is  hardly  distinguishable,  and,  in 
general,  does  not  exceed  one  hundred  feet  in  thickness. 

"  Now,  this  cliff  limestone,  so  sparmgly  developed  else- 
where, swells,  in  the  Wisconsin  lead  region,  into  the  most 
remarkable,  most  important,  and  most  bulky  member  of  the 
group.  It  becomes,  as  it  were,  the  Aaron's  rod,  swallowing 
up  all  the  rest.  It  attains  to  a  thickness  of  upward  of  five 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  while  the  underlying  blue  limestone, 
which,  in  Ohio,  has  usually  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thou- 
sand feet  of  thickness,  shrinks,  in  many  places,  to  less  than 
one  hundred  feet,  and,  in  others,  seems  wholly  wanting ; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  black  slate,  commonly  found 
above  the  cliff  limestone,  seems  also  deficient ;  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  fine-grained  limestone,  or  the  oolitic 
limestone,  or  the  conglomerate,  can  be  detected  at  all  through- 
out the  entire  tract  of  country  which  has  been  subjected  to 
exploration. 

"  In  a  word,  in  the  region  now  under  consideration,  the 
cliff  limestone,  with  a  variable  and  usually  thin  substratum 
of  blue  limestone,  seems  to  engross  the  entire  mountain  lime- 
stone group ;  and  the  coal-measures,  where  found  (namely, 
in  the  extreme  southern  boundary  of  the  tract),  occur  in 
immediate  contact  with  it,  instead  of  being  separated,  as  usual 
m  Ohio  and  the  neighboring  States,  by  three  distinct  mem- 
bers, occupying  about  one  thousand  feet  in  thickness. 

"  This  enormous  development  of  one  of  the  members  of  the 
mountain  limestone  group,  and  the  almost  complete  oblitera 


GEOLOGY.  237 

tion  of  llic  rest  (witli  the  single  exception  of  the  blue  lime- 
stone, upon  whicli,  also,  it  much  encroaches)  is  peculiar,  so 
far  as  my  observations  in  tlic  Western  States  extend,  to  the 
district  of  country  which  is  the  object  of  the  present  report. 
In  the  north  of  this  district,  the  clilf  limestone  appears  to  run 
out,  the  blue  limestone  and  underlying  sandstones  coming  to 
the  surface.  South,  it  disappears  beneath  the  coal-measures. 
East,  it  seems  to  be  chiefly  covered  up  by  recent  deposits, 
extending,  probably,  in  an  east  or  southeasterly  direction 
beneath  these,  across  the  States  of  Illinois  and  Indiana,  into 
the  State  of  Ohio.  And  west,  so  far  as  our  examinations 
went,  it  is  also  chiefly  covered  up  by  recent  deposits,  occur- 
ring, however,  occasionally,  in  the  beds  of  the  streams,  and 
projecting,  at  first  in  clilTs,  and  at  last  only  in  low  ledges, 
from  their  banks. 

"  The  general  geological  character  of  the  country  explored 
may,  then,  be  thus  briefly  sununed  up.  It  belongs  to  that 
class  of  rocks  called,  by  recent  geologists,  secondary,  and,  by 
others,  occasionally  included  in  the  transition  series.  It 
belongs,  further,  to  a  division  of  this  class  of  rocks,  described, 
in  Europe,  as  the  mountain  limestone,  or,  sometimes,  as  the 
carboniferous,  or  metalliferous,  or  encrinital  limestone.  And 
it  belongs,  yet  more  especially,  to  a  subdivision  of  this  group, 
known  popularly,  where  it  occurs  in  the  west,  as  the  cliff' 
limestone,  and  described  under  that  name  by  the  geologists 
of  Ohio. 

"  This  last  is  the  rock  formation  in  which  the  lead,  copper, 
iron,  and  zinc,  of  the  region  under  consideration,  are  almost 
exclusively  found  ;  and  its  unusual  development,  doubtless, 
much  conduces  to  the  extraordinary  mineral  riches  of  this 
favored  region.  It,  therefore,  demands,  and  shall  hereafter 
receive,  particular  analysis  and  attention. 

*'  In   the    nortlicrn   portion  of  the    district   surveyed,   an 


238  APPENDIX. 

interesting  and  somewhat  nncommon  feature  in  the  geology 
of  Western  America  presents  itself.  I  refer  to  the  strata  (of 
considerable  depth)  which  crop  out  along  a  narrow  strip  of 
the  northern  boundary-line  of  this  district,  and  which  are 
chiefly  observable  in  the  bluffs  on  both  sides  of  the  Wisconsin 
River,  whence  (if  we  may  rely  on  the  representations  of 
Schoolcraft  and  others)  they  extend  north  even  to  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony. 

"  These  strata  are  interesting ;  first,  as  being  the  only 
instance  known  to  me,  in  the  Valley  of  the  Missisippi,  in 
which  the  rocks  underlying  the  blue  limestone  can  be  seen 
emerging  from  beneath  it  to  the  surface  ;  and,  secondly,  as 
apparently  supplying  an  example  of  those  alternations  of 
neighboring  strata,  to  which  I  have  already  alluded  as  being 
partial  exceptions  to  the  invariable  order  of  geological  super- 
position. 

"  Immediately  below  the  substratum  of  blue  limestone 
which  constitutes  the  lowest  member  of  the  moixitain  lime- 
stone group,  where  it  has  been  observed  east  of  the  Missi- 
sippi, there  occurs,  and  shows  itself  in  the  Wisconsin  bluffs, 
a  stratum  of  sandstone,  in  some  places  of  a  deep  red,  and  in 
others  of  a  white  color,  resembling  loaf-sugar ;  and  thence 
called,  in  Dr.  Locke's  diagrams  exhibiting  the  sections  on 
the  Wisconsin  River,  saccharoid  (or  sugar-like)  sandstone. 

"  Immediately  beneath  this  succeeds  a  magnesian  lime- 
stone, so  similar  to  the  cliff  limestone,  both  in  external  appear- 
ance and  chemical  composition,  as  not  to  be  distinguishable 
from  it  in  hand-specimens,  alternating  with  other  layers  of 
sandstone,  similar  to  that  above-described. 

"  The  actual  average  dip  of  the  rocks  throughout  the  dis- 
trict, according  to  the  observations  made  by  Dr.  Locke,  is 
from  nine  to  ten  feet  per  mile,  but  it  is  occasionally  mucli 
greater.     For  example,  from  tlie  mouth  of  Turkey  river  to 


GEOLOGY.  239 

Prairie  du  Chicn,  the  blue  limestone  rises  at  an  average  rate 

of  seventeen  and  a  lialf  feet  per  mile.     The  dip,  liowever,  is 

subject  to  undulations  ;  for  instance,  at  Dubuque,  the  blue 

limestone  does  not  show  itself   above  low-water  mark  ;  at 

Eagle  point,  a  mile  and  a  half  up  the  Missisippi,  it  rises  ten 

feet  above  low  water  ;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Makoqueta, 

four  miles  farther  up,  its  height  above  low-water  mark  is  forty 

feet ;  at  the  mouth  of  Turkey  river,  twenty  miles  farther  up, 

it  disappears  again  beneath  the  waters  of  the  Missisip|)i  ;  a 

few  miles  beyond  this  point,  it  emerges  again  to  the  surface  ; 

and,  finally,  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  twenty  miles  above  Turkey 

river,  its  upper  surface  has  already  attained  an  elevation  of 

more  than  four  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Missisippi.  '^fjfjl 

The  line  of  the  greatest  general  dip  is  about  south,  ten  to 

twenty  degrees  west. 

"  The  importance  of  these  observations  on  the  dip  of  the 
rocks,  forming  as  they  do  the  materials  to  calculate  the  thick- 
ness of  each  stratum  at  any  given  spot,  is  very  great,  [ndeed, 
such  observations  are  indispensable,  before  an  accurate  esti- 
mate can  be  formed  of  the  value  and  extent  of  a  mineral 
tract.  They  indicate,  with  much  fidelity,  the  depth  to  whicli, 
at  different  points,  a  productive  vein  of  ore  is  likely  to  extend." 

*'  I  have  preferred  and  adopted  the  name  of  cliff  limestone 
to  designate  this  rock  (though  a  popular  rather  than  a  scien- 
tific term),  because  it  aptly  expresses  its  most  striking  external 
characteristic,  which  imparts  to  the  scenery  of  any  country 
in  which  the  rock  abounds  a  bold  and  romantic  character.  I 
allude  to  its  disposition  to  cleave  vertically,  and  form  per- 
pendicular cliffs. 

"  These  mural  escarpments,  exliibiting  every  variety  of 
form,  give  to  the  otherwise  monotonous  character  of  tlie  land- 
scape in  Iowa  a  varied  and  ])icturcs(jue  appearance.  Some- 
times they  may  be  seen  in  the  distance,  rising  from  out  the 


240  APPENDIX. 

rolling  hills  of  the  prairie,  like  ruined  castles,  moss-grown 
under  the  hand  of  time. 

"  Sometimes  they  present,  even  when  more  closely  in- 
spected, a  curious  resemblance  to  turrets,  and  bastions,  and 
battlements,  and  even  to  the  loopholes  and  embrasures  of  a 
regular  fortification.  Sometimes  single  blocks  are  seen  jutting 
forth,  not  unlike  dormant  windows  rising  through  the  turf  clad 
roof  of  an  old  cottage  ;  and  again,  at  times,  especially  along 
the  descending  spurs  of  the  hills,  isolated  masses  emerge  in 
a  thousand  fanciful  shapes,  in  which  the  imagination  readily 
recognizes  the  appearance  of  giants,  sphinxes,  lions,  and 
innumerable  fantastic  resemblances. 

"  The  appearance  of  this  rock  is  further  modified  by  the 
peculiar  mamier  in  which  it  weathers.  Numerous  masses  of 
chert  (a  variety  of  flint),  and  also  many  siliceous  fossils,  are 
interspersed  through  its  mass  ;  and  these,  becoming  gradually 
loosened  by  the  action  of  air  and  water,  drop  out,  and  leave 
cavities  of  various  shapes  and  sizes.  Thus  the  rock  is  fre- 
quently found  riddled  with  irregular  holes,  from  a  few  inches 
to  a  foot  in  diameter,  giving  its  surface  a  rugged  and  ahnost 
bone-like  appearance.  Frequently  this  variety  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  rock  gives  occasion  to  an  undermining  process 
on  the  lower  surface  of  a  clifT,  which  gradually  proceeds, 
until,  perhaps,  a  towering  and  tottering  column  remains,  sup- 
ported on  a  contracted  base,  which  threatens  every  moment 
to  give  way  and  precipitate  the  poised  mass  into  the  valley 
beneath. 

"  The  cliff  limestone  of  Iowa  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  mag- 
nesian  limestone,  containing  (by  careful  analysis  of  four 
separate  specimens  from  different  localities)  from  thirty-live 
to  forty  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  magnesia. 

"  It  contains,  on  the  average,  from  eiglitecn  to  twenty  per 
cent  of  pure  magnesia  ;  and  by  mere  solution  in  sulphuric 


GEOLOGY.  241 

acid,  is  capable  of  yielding  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  ten 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty  parts  of  crystallized  Epsom  salts 
(sulphate  of  magnesia),  and  sixty  parts  of  gypsum  (anhydrous 
sulphate  of  lime),  from  every  hundred  ])arts  of  the  rock.  80 
that  if  suljjhuric  acid  can  be  obtained  or  produced  at  a  sufli- 
ciently  cheap  rate  in  Wisconsin,  Epsom  salts  may  there  be 
manufactured  profitably,  and  to  an  unlimited  extent.  I  have 
at  present,  in  my  laboratory,  two  hundred  and  thirty  grains 
of  Epsom  salts  prepared  from  two  hundred  grains  of  the  rock. 

"  It  is  from  magnesian  limestone  that  the  Epsom  salts  of 
commerce  are  now  commonly  procured. 

"  But  though  the  clilf  rock  is  a  magnesian  limestone,  and 
though  the  proportions  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
which  chiefly  compose  it,  indicate  that  it  is  even  a  chemical 
compound  rather  than  a  mechanical  mixture,  yet  it  cannot 
with  propriety,  nor  without  risk  of  misconception,  be  called 
the  magnesian  limestone,  as  a  late  writer  on  the  geology  of 
Upper  Illinois  has  termed  the  corresponding  formation  be- 
tween Chicago  and  Ottawa ;  since  it  is  only  a  subdivision  of 
the  mountain  liniestone  group,  always  occurring  beneath  the 
true  coal-measures  ;  whereas,  the  magnesian  limestone  of 
geologists  (the  zechstein  of  the  Germans)  is  one  of  the  lower 
members  of  the  new  red  sandstone  group,  and  overlies  the 
bituminous  coal  formation. 

*'  Phillips,  speaking,  as  it  would  seem,  of  the  great  scar 
limestone  of  the  north  of  England,  which  he  there  calls  'the 
great  limestone,'  says  :  *  It  is  considered  to  have  produced  as 
much  lead  as  all  the  other  sills  put  together.'  This  is  pre- 
eminently true  of  the  cliff  limestone  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin. 

"  The  lead  region  lies,  as  will  be  remarked,  chiefly  in  Wis- 
consin, including,  however,  a  strip  of  about  eight  townships 
of  land  in   Iowa,  along  the  western  bank  of  the  Missisij)})i, 

the  greatest  width  of  which  strip  is  on  the  Little  Maijuoketa, 

12 


242  APPENDIX. 

about  twelve  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  including  also  about 
ten  townships  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  Illinois.  The 
portion  of  this  lead  region  in  Wisconsin  includes  about  sixty- 
two  townships.  The  entire  lead  region,  then,  comprehends 
about  eighty  townships,  or  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eighty  square  miles  ;  being  about  one-third  larger  than  the 
State  of  Delaware.  The  extreme  length  of  this  lead  region, 
from  east  to  west,  is  eighty-seven  miles  ;  and  its  greatest 
width,  from  north  to  south,  is  fifty-four  miles. 

"  The  boundary  of  this  region  commences  on  the  Missi- 
sippi  River,  where  the  south  line  of  township  eighty-seven 
north,  range  four  east  of  the  fifth  principal  meridian,  crosses 
that  stream  immediately  below  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Tete 
des  Morts  ;  and  runs  thence  six  miles  due  west,  thence  six 
miles  north,  thence  six  miles  west,  thence  northwest  diago- 
nally through  township  eighty-eight,  range  two  east,  and  town- 
ship eighty-nine,  range  one  east,  both  of  the  fourth  [fifth]  prin- 
cipal meridian,  until  the  line  strikes  the  fifth  principal  meridian, 
where  the  line  dividing  tow^nships  eighty-nine  and  ninety 
crosses  said  meridian  line  ;  thence  six  miles  north,  thence  six 
miles  west,  thence  three  miles  north,  thence  three  miles  west, 
thence  three  miles  north,  thence  three  miles  west,  thence  three 
miles  north,  thence  three  miles  west,  thence  three  miles  north, 
thence  three  miles  east,  thence  north  to  the  ]\Iissisippi,  which 
it  strikes  about  seven  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin River,  thence,  crossing  the  Missisippi,  it  runs  diagonally 
through  township  five,  range  six  west,  of  the  fourth  principal 
meridian,  to  the  northeast  corner  of  said  township  ;  thence  six 
miles  east,  thence  three  miles  north,  thence  eighteen  miles 
cast,  thence  tlu*ee  miles  north,  thence  three  miles  east,  thence 
three  miles  north,  thence  nine  miles  east,  thence  six  miles 
south,  thence  twelve  miles  east,  thence  eighteen  miles  east, 
passing  along  the  northern  base  of  the  Blue  Mounds  ;  thence 


GEOLOGY.  243 

twelve  miles  south,  tlieiiro  iwclvo  miles  cast,  thence  twelve 
miles  south,  thence  six  miles  west,  thence  six  miles  south, 
thence  twelve  miles  west,  thence  six  miles  south,  striking  the 
northern  boundary-line  of  the  State  of  Illinois  at  tlie  point 
wliere  tlie  line  between  ranges  five  and  six  east  of  the  fourth 
principal  meridian  crosses  said  boundary-line  ;  thence,  with 
said  boundary-line,  six  miles  west,  thence  twelve  miles  or 
thereby  south,  to  the  southeast  corner  of  section  tliirtcen, 
township  twenty-seven  north,  range  four  east  of  the  fiftli 
principal  meridian;  thence  six  miles  west,  thence  three  miles 
south,  thence  sixteen  miles  or  tlicreby  east,  to  the  cast  bank 
of  the  Missisippi  River,  about  five  miles  below  the  mouth  of 
Fever  River,  and  about  a  mile  and  a  half  below  the  place  of 
beginning,  already  designated,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Missisippi.* 

''  This  lead  region  is,  in  general,  well  watered ;  namely, 
by  Pcccatonnica  River,  Apple  River,  Fever  River,  Platte 
River,  Grand  River,  the  head-waters  of  Blue  River,  and 
Sugar  Creek  ;  and  on  tlie  Iowa  side  by  the  Little  Makoqueta 
and  the  lower  portion  of  Turkey  River :  all  of  these  streams 
being  tributaries  of  the  Missisippi. 

"  The  higliest  points  within  this  region  are  the  summits  of 
the  Blue  Mounds,  two  hills  of  a  conical  shape,  composed  of 
chert  and  other  varieties  of  Hint  rock,  in  the  northeast  portion 
of  the  tract,  and  rising  to  the  height  of  one  thousand  feet 
ai)ove  the  Wisconsin  River.  The  Platte  Mounds,  also  of 
conical  form,  and  about  six  hundred  feet  high,  occupy  nearly 
the  centre  of  the  lead  region. 

"  These  isolated  and  towering  mounds,  so  conspicuous  a 

•  "  A  few  fractional  townships,  originally  included  in  my  special  repnrt-s, 
within  the  lead  region,  have  been,  on  re-examination,  thrown  out,  as  not 
strictly  belonging  to  the  district  w!)ich  is  likely  to  aflord  jirodurtivo  veins 
of  lead  ore." 


244  '  APPENDIX. 

feature  in  the  landscape  of  Wisconsin,  are  evidence  of  the 
denuding  action  to  which,  under  the  cnimbhng  hand  of  time, 
the  surface  of  our  globe  is  continually  subjected,  and  which 
the  more  durable  siliceous  masses  of  these  hills  of  flint  have 
been  enabled  partially  to  resist. 

"  The  northern  boundary  of  the  Wisconsin  lead  region  is 
nearly  coincident  with  the  southern  boundary-line  of  the  blue 
limestone  where  it  fairly  emerges  to  the  surface.  No  disco- 
veries of  any  importance  have  been  made  after  reaching  that 
formation  ;  and  when  a  mine  is  sunk  through  the  cliff  lime- 
stone to  the  blue  limestone  beneath,  the  lodes  of  lead  shrink 
to  insignificance,  and  no  longer  return  to  the  miner  a  profitable 
reward  for  his  labor.  Indeed,  the  small  quantities  of  lead 
ore  which  have  occasionally  been  found  in  the  blue  limestone, 
occur  in  veins  not  much  thicker  than  writing-paper,  which 
have  insinuated  themselves  into  the  slender  streams  of  the 
stratification.  This  coincidence  between  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  the  productive  lead  region,  and  that  of  the  cliff  limestone, 
is  an  example  of  the  practical  utility  and  application  of  the 
geological  divisions  of  the  different  formations.  Even  if  not 
a  single  shaft  had  ever  been  sunk  in  Wisconsin,  it  might  have 
been  predicted,  with  probability,  that  this  change  in  the 
formation  would  be  strictly  accompanied  with  a  corresponding 
change  in  the  productiveness  of  the  lead  veins. 

"  Mr.  Carne  has  observed,  regarding  the  metalliferous  veins 
of  Cornwall,  that  it  is  a  rare  circumstance  when  a  vein,  whicli 
has  been  productive  in  one  species  of  rock,  continues  rich 
loner  after  it  has  entered  into  another ;  and  this  change,  lie 
adds,  is  even  remarked  when  the  same  rock  becomes  harder 
or  softer,  more  slaty  or  more  compact.  Hence  it  was  very 
unlikely  that  the  Wisconsin  lead  ore,  so  rich  in  the  cliff  lime- 
stone, should  retain  the  same  rich  character  in  the  blue  lime- 
stone, even  liad  the  structure  of  this  last  been  equally  adapted 


GEOLOGY.  :345 

10  the  bearing  of  lead.  Bui,  in  truth,  rocks  of  a  sclustosc 
character,  composed  of  extensible  layers,  and  devoid  of 
vertical  fissures,  like  this  blue  limestone,  seldom  contain  lead 
ore  in  quantity.  Phillips,  in  liis  recent  geological  treatise, 
from  which  we  have  already  made  several  quotations,  justly 
remarks  ;  '  It  is  not  because  of  any  peculiar  chemical  quali- 
ty that  limestone  yields  most  lead  ore  on  Aldstone  Moor,  but 
because  of  its  being  a  rock  which  has  retained  openness  of 
fissure.  Gritstones,  in  many  mining  fields  near  Aldstone 
Moor,  are  equally  productive  ;  but  shales,  as  being  soft  ex- 
tensible layers,  have  closed  up  the  fissures,  and  their  crumbling 
faces  appear  to  have  rejected  the  crystallizations  which  attach- 
ed to  the  harder  limestone,  gritstone,  and  chert.' 

"  These  remarks  apply,  with  force,  to  the  fissured  cliff  rock 
of  Wisconsin,  compared  to  the  softer  and  more  slaty-structured 
blue  limestone  beneath  it. 

"  It  will  also  be  remarked,  that  the  designated  lead  region 
is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  northern  half  of  the  cliff 
limestone  formation  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin  ;  which  northern 
half  is  occupied  by  its  middle  and  lower  beds.  The  upper 
beds  (lying  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  district)  do  not,  as 
already  intimated,  furnish  productive  veins  of  lead  ore.  The 
crevices  in  these  upper  beds  seem  to  be  less  numerous,  and 
either  empty  or  filled  with  iron  ore  (hydrated  brown  oxide),  or 
calcareous  spar  (crystallized  carbonate  of  lime),  to  the  almost 
entire  exclusion  of  veins  of  lead. 

**  It  follows,  from  the  above  observations,  that  the  mines  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  district  are  less  likely  to  be  pro- 
ductive to  a  great  depth,  than  those  along  its  southern  and 
western  boundaries. 

"  It  follows,  also,  that,  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  dis- 
trict not  included  by  me  in  the  productive  lead  region,  mines 
of  value  may  yet  be  discovered,  by  sinking  shafts  tlurough 


246  APPENDIX. 

the  upper  beds  of  the  cliff  limestone  to  the  lead-bearing  beds 
beneath — unless,  indeed,  these  lower  beds  should  prove  to  be 
beyond  the  sphere  of  action  where  the  lead  has  been  pro- 
duced. This  latter  contingency  is  possible  ;  yet  the  richness 
of  the  mines  in  the  southern  and  western  portion  of  the  lead 
district  (at  Apple  river  and  Dubuque,  for  example),  as  com- 
pared with  some  of  the  northern  mines,  seems  to  indicate  that 
the  ore  may  still  continue  rich  in  the  descending  beds.  Since, 
however,  this  is,  as  yet,  an  unsolved  problem  ;  and  even  if  it 
were  solved,  as  it  would  require  much  capital  to  sink  shafts 
to  the  necessary  depth,  and  since  mines  of  this  depth  w^ould 
doubtless  be  inundated  w^ith  water,  and  require  steam-engines 
to  drain  them,  I  have  not  considered  it  my  duty  to  include 
this  southern  portion  of  the  district  within  the  bounds  of  the 
productive  lead  region  ;  although,  hereafter,  should  the  easily 
accessible  lodes  be  exhausted,  and  the  demand  for  lead  rapid- 
ly increase,  it  may  become  so. 

"  With  regard  to  the  magncsian  limestone  which  underlies 
the  blue  limestone  and  sandstone  strata,  and  comes  to  the 
surface  of  the  extreme  northeastern  portion  of  the  district,  its 
similarity  in  structure  and  composition  to  the  cliff  limestone, 
including  its  disposition  to  form  vertical  fissures,  and  its  pro- 
bable identity  with  the  rock  formation  in  the  Missouri  lead 
region,  might  induce  the  expectation  that  it,  also,  would  be 
rich  in  lead  ore.  It  may  be  so  ;  but  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  iron  ore  (brown  oxide)  in  those  townships  where  this  for- 
mation prevails*  (as  in  the  upper  beds  of  the  southern  portion 
of  the  district),  together  with  the  little  success  which  has 
hitherto  attended  the  search  after  lead  ore  within  its  confines, 

*  It  is  not  improbable,  from  its  similarity  to  the  lead-bearing  rock  in 
Missouri,  that  this  lower  magnesian  limestone,  if  it  be  extensive  north  of 
the  Wisconsin  river  beyond  the  limits  of  our  survey,  may  there  yield  pro- 
ductive veins  of  lead  ore. 


GEOLOGY.  247 

render  it  doubtful.  As  tliis  furniatioii  occupies  Init  a  small 
corner  of  the  district,  the  examinations  were  necessarily  too 
limited  to  enable  me  to  pronounce,  with  confidence,  upon  its 
lead-bearing  character. 

"  All  the  valuable  deposits  of  lead  ore  which  have  as  yet 
been  discovered,  occur  either  in  fissures  or  rents  in  the  clifl' 
rock,  or  else  are  found  imbedded  in  the  recent  deposits  which 
overlie  these  rocks.  These  fissures  vary  from  the  thickness 
of  a  wafer  to  thirty  or  even  fifty  feet  in  thickness  ;  and  many 
of  them  extend  to  a  very  great,  and  at  present  unknown 
depth. 

**  The  most  common  diameter  of  fissures  filled  with  solid 
ore  is  from  one  to  four  inches. 

"  In  the  Apple  river  diggings,  one  vein  filled  up  with  ore 
was  reported  to  me  as  being,  where  then  worked,  four  feet 
across  ;  but  an  experienced  miner,  living  close  to  the  Illinois 
line,  in  one  of  the  richest  spots  in  the  district,  informed  me 
that  he  had  never  seen  a  solid  vein  continue,  for  any  conside- 
rable distance,  of  greater  thickness  than  one  foot. 

"  In  the  spring  of  1828  there  was  a  mass  of  lead  ore  found 
in  an  east-and-west  crevice,  at  the  Vinegar-hill  diggings,  about 
thirty-five  feet  in  length,  expanding  in  the  centre  to  the  width 
of  six  or  eight  feet,  and  terminating  in  a  point  at  each  end. 
It  was  a  hollow,  and  its  walls  averaged  about  a  foot  in  thick- 
ness, forming,  as  it  were,  a  huge  shell  of  mineral.  This  ex- 
traordinary natural  chamber  was  cleared  out ;  a  taljlc  spread 
within  it  on  the  4th  of  July  ;  and  a  considerable  company 
celebrated  the  national  anniversary  within  its  leaden  walls, 
about  sixty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth, 

**  The  formation  of  caverns,  by  the  occasional  expansion 
of  the  lead-bearing  crevice  to  a  considerable  width  and  height, 
is  not  uncommon.  The  ceiling  of  such  a  subterranean  cham- 
ber is  commonly  adorned  with  large,  pendant,  icicle-like  sta- 


248  APPENDIX 

lactites,  which  conceal  from  the  eye  of  the  spectator  the  rich 
lead  ore  which  thev  encrust. 

"  Upon  the  whole,  a  review  of  the  resources  and  capabili- 
ties of  this  lead  region,  taken  in  connection  with  its  statis- 
tics (in  so  far  as  it  was  possible  to  collect  these),  induces  me 
to  say,  with  confidence,  that  ten  thousand  miners  could  find 
profitable  employment  w^ithin  its  confines. 

"  If  we  suppose  each  of  these  to  raise  daily  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  of  ore,  during  six  months  only  of  each  year, 
they  would  produce  amiually  upwards  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  million  pounds  of  lead — more  than  is  now  furnished  by 
the  entire  mines  of  Europe,  those  of  Great  Britain  included. 

*'  This  estimate,  founded  (as  those  who  have  perused  the 
foregoing  pages  will  hardly  deny)  upon  reasonable  data, 
presents,  in  a  striking  point  of  view,  the  intrinsic  value  and 
conamercial  importance  of  the  country  upon  which  I  am 
reporting  ;  emphatically,  the  lead  region  of  Northern  Ame- 
rica. 

"  It  is,  so  far  as  my  reading  and  experience  extend,  decid- 
edly the  richest  in  the  known  world. 

COPPER    ORE. 

"  The  copper  ore  of  Wisconsin  Territory  forms  an  item 
in  its  mineral  wealth,  which  would  be  considered  of  great 
importance,  and  would  attract  much  attention,  but  for  the 
superior  richness  and  value  of  the  lead,  the  gi'eat  staple  of 
the  Territory. 

''  This  ore  occupies,  in  the  district  under  examination,  the 
same  geological  position  as  the  lead  ore.  It  originates  in 
the  fissures  of  the  cliff  limestone.  It  has  been  spoken  of, 
very  incorrectly,  as  '  float  mineral  ;^  as  if,  like  the  fragments 
of  native  copper  sometimes  found  in  the  diluvium  of  Western 


GEOLOGY.  249 

America,  il  had  been  conveyed  to  its  present  situation  from  a 
distance.  Tins  our  examinations  have  disproved.  Disco- 
veries of  copper  ore  have  indeed  been  made  on  a  sloping 
hill-side  near  Mineral  Point,  within  three  or  four  feet  of  the 
surface  ;  and  there  the  ore  \vas  found  disseminated  and  hn- 
beddcd  in  an  ochrcous  earth.*  But  on  following  this  depo- 
sit to  the  opposite  side  of  the  ravine  (on  section  twenty-two, 
township  five,  range  three  east  of  the  fourth  principal  meri- 
dian), the  copper  ore  was  traced  into  a  crevice,  and  a  regular 
vein  has  there  been  worked  to  the  dcptli  of  thirty  or  forty 
feet.  The  pieces  of  copper  ore  raised  on  this  spot  com- 
monly weighed  from  a  few  ounces  to  ten  or  twelve  pounds ; 
and  one  mass  thence  procured  was  estimated  at  five  hundred 
pounds, 

'*  The  course  of  this  copper  vein  is  from  southeast  to 
northwest ;  and  if  this  line  be  produced  either  way,  from  the 
discoveries  at  Mineral  Point,  it  will  strike,  almost  exactly, 
the  discoveries  of  copper  ore  northwest  oji  Blue  River,  and 
southeast  on  the  Peccatonnica — a  proof  that  the  copper  ore 
is  not  a  superficial  and  vagrant  deposit,  but  exists  in  veins 
of  uniform  bearing ;  and  that  these  veins  are  continuous, 
and  in  all  probability  extensive. 

"  It  is  found  in  several  localities  in  sufilicient  abundance 
to  repay  well  the  labor  of  the  miner.  If  there  were  a  steady 
demand  for  copper  ore  in  the  Territory,  the  miners  could 
afford,  as  I  was  informed  by  themselves,  to  raise  copper  ore 
at  the  same  price  as  lead  ore — namely,  from  one  and  a  half 
to  two  cents  per  pound.  It  would  be  in  good  demand,  and 
be  extensively  raised,  but  for  the  capital  and  skill  necessary 


*  <( 


"  This  eartli  frequently  contains  particles,  more  or  less  numerous,  of 
copper  ore,  and  is  then  popularly  termed  'gozzin,'  and  employed  as  a  flux 
in  the  copper  furnaces.  The  gozzin  of  Wisconsin  yields,  by  analysis,  from 
six  to  nine  per  cent,  of  pure  copper — a  large  per  centage  for  such  ore. 

12* 


250  APPENDIX. 

to  reduce  it ;  which  are  both  far  greater  than  the  lead-smelter 
requires  ;  and,  also,  but  for  the  scarcity  of  fuel.  The  cop- 
per ore  of  this  region  compares  very  favorably  with  the 
Cornwall  copper  ores.  An  analysis  of  a  selected  specimen 
of  the  best  working  Cornwall  ore,  and  of  three  average 
specimens  of  Wisconsin  ore,  showed  that  the  latter  contains 
from  a  fifteenth  to  a  third  more  of  copper  than  the  former. 

"  The  Wisconsin  ore  is  of  a  very  uniform  quality.  There 
was  shipped  from  Ansley's  ground,  within  a  mile  of  Mineral 
Point,  in  the  year  1838,  to  England,  50,000  pounds  of 
ore  ;  which  yielded  (according  to  the  statement  of  one  of 
the  gentlemen  who  shipped  it)  over  twenty  per  cent,  of  pure 
copper.  The  average  produce  in  the  copper  mines  of  Corn- 
wall may  be  stated  at  eight  per  cent. 

"  There  have  been  raised,  at  the  Mineral  Point  mines, 
upward  of  a  million  and  a  half  pounds  of  copper.  At  Ans- 
ley's copper  furnace,  135,000  pounds  of  this  were  smelted  ; 
which  yielded,  '  in  a  very  imperfect  smelting  furnace,'  12,000 
pounds  pure  copper,  or  about  nine  per  cent.  Mr.  Ansley 
stated  that  he  had  not  been  able  to  procure  a  smelter  ac- 
quainted with  the  mode  of  reducing  copper  ore  ;  and  it  is 
impossible  to  say  what  the  per  centage  might  have  been,  had 
the  reduction  been  conducted  with  skill,  and  in  a  well-con- 
structed furnace. 

"  The  Wisconsin  copper  veins  may  rank  among  the  most 
important  that  have  yet  been  discovered  in  the  limestone 
formation.  European  copper  mines  in  that  geological  group 
(as  in  Staifordshire,  England),  usually  yield  very  sparingly. 
Cornwall,  whicli  is  the  greatest  copper  country  in  the  world, 
is  composed  entirely  of  crystalline,  and  the  lower  stratified 
rocks,  chiefly  slate,  associated  with  granite  and  porphyry. 
The  celebrated  Pary's  copper  mine,  in  tlie  island  of  Angle- 
sea,  occurs  in  a  mountain  composed  of  primary  slate. 


GEOLOGY.  251 

"  This  may  seem  an  argument  against  the  probahle  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  Wisconsin  copper  mines.  Yet  the  forma- 
tions in  this  western  hemisphere  are  on  a  scale  so  extensive, 
compared  with  tliosc  in  inost  parts  of  Europe  (witness  a 
single  coal  field  equalling  Great  Britain  in  area),  that  such 
an  argument  must  be  received  with  many  qualifications.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  indications  in  Wisconsin,  as  far  as  they 
have  been  observed,  and  the  analysis  of  the  ore,  afford  strong 
presumptive  evidence  that  capital  and  skill  alone  are  required 
to  render  copper-mining  in  this  district,  at  least  for  some 
time  to  come,  an  advantageous  and  profitable  adventure. 

"  One  of  the  difficulties  which  here  occurs  in  reducing  the 
ore — namely,  the  lack  of  fuel — is  common  to  the  richest 
copper  countries  in  Europe.  The  Cornwall  copper  ore  is 
conveyed  partly  to  Swansea  and  other  portions  of  Wales, 
and  partly  to  Liverpool,  to  be  smelted  in  a  coal  region  ;  and 
the  same  vessels  whicli  thus  convey  the  less  bulky  material 
to  the  more  bulky  (the  ore  to  the  fuel),  return  laden  with 
coal  to  supply  the  numerous  and  powerful  steam  engines 
required  for  draining  and  other  purposes  at  the  Cornwall 
mines.  And  thus,  in  Wisconsin,  if  copper  ore  be  raised  in 
quantities,  it  may  be  necessary  to  convey  it  south  to  the 
margin  of  the  great  Illinois  coal  field — say  to  the  mouth  of 
Rock  River.  This  would  require  a  land  carriage  of  from 
ten  to  thirty  miles,  and  a  water  carriage  of  about  lOU.  The 
Cornwall  ore  is  transported  to  a  greater  distance  than  this. 

"■  It  may  be  added,  as  an  additional  fact  whereby  to  esti- 
mate the  value  of  the  Wisconsin  copper  ore,  that,  in  some 
of  the  European  copper  mines,  '  this  ore  does  not  contain 
above  three  per  cent,  of  pure  copper,  and  yet  it  pays  for 
working.'  Also,  that  in  some  of  the  Cornwall  mines,  the 
ore  is  worked  profitably  at  a  depth  of  more  than  2000  feet 
*  from  the  grass,'  as  the  phrase  there  is. 


252  APPENDIX. 


Finally,  the  Wisconsin  copper  ore  derives  additional  value 
in  consequence  of  being  found  in  the  vicinity  of,  and  often  in 
the  same  mine  as,  productive  veins  of 

ZINC    ORE. 

"  This  ore,  found  both  in  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  usually 
occurs  in  the  fissures,  along  with  the  lead.  It  is  chiefly  the 
electric  calamine — the  carbonate  of  zinc  of  the  mineralogist. 
Though  a  solid  ore,  it  has  an  ochreous,  earthy  aspect,  often 
resembling  the  cellular  substance  of  the  bone  :  hence  it  is 
familiarly  known  among  the  miners  by  the  name  of  '  dry 
bones.' 

*'  Notwithstanding  its  intrinsic  value,  which  will  before 
very  long  be  duly  appreciated,  it  is  at  present  an  object  of 
especial  aversion  to  the  miner  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin.  It 
frequently  happens,  in  both  Territories,  that  the  load  ore  in  a 
fissure  gradually  diminishes,  and  eventually  is  entirely  re- 
placed by  this  zinc  ore  ;  or,  as  the  disappointed  workman, 
sometimes  with  a  hearty  curse,  not  very  scientifically  ex- 
presses it,  *  the  dry  bone  eats  out  the  mineral.' 

"  At  some  of  the  diggings,  large  quantities  of  this  carbo- 
nate of  zinc  can  be  procured.  Thousands  of  tons  are  now 
lying  in  various  locations  on  the  surface,  rejected  as  a  worth- 
less drug — indeed,  as  a  nuisance.  It  is  known  to  but  a  few 
of  the  miners  as  a  zinc  ore  at  all.  An  analysis  of  this  ore 
proves  it  to  be  a  true  carbonate  of  zinc,  containing  forty-five 
per  cent,  of  the  pure  metal. 

"  Sulphuret  of  zinc  (sometimes  called  blende,  and,  by  the 
Enghsh  miner,  '  black-jack')  is  also  abundant  in  the  Wiscon- 
sin mines.  It  contains  from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  per  cent, 
of  zinc,  but  is  more  difficult  of  reduction  than  the  calamine. 

"  Sheet  zinc  is  becoming  an  article  of  considerable  de- 


(.EOLOGV.  253 

mand  in  the  market,  for  culinary  purposes,  and  as  a  covering 
for  valuable  buildings,  instead  of  lead.  But  the  chief  con- 
sumption of  this  metal  is  in  making  brass,  well  known  to  be 
a  compound  of  copper  and  zinc.  In  this  process,  the  carbo- 
nate of  zinc,  previously  calcined,  is  mixed  with  charcoal  and 
gi'anulated  copper,  and  then  exposed  to  a  suitable  heat.  The 
common  brass  imported  from  England  contains  upwards  of 
thirteen  per  cent,  of  zinc ;  that  of  Paris,  a  little  less  ;  and 
the  fine  brass  of  Geneva,  used  in  the  nicer  parts  of  watch- 
making, contains  as  much  as  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  zinc. 

*'  Large  quantities  both  of  copper  and  zinc  are  now  imported 
from  Europe  into  the  United  States,  to  supply  the  continually 
increasing  demand  for  brass.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
district  now  under  consideration  might  furnish  of  both  metals 
a  sufficient  amount,  at  least  for  many  years  to  come,  to  sup- 
ply the  entire  United  States  with  brass  of  home  produce  and 
manufacture. 

•*  Of  zinc,  at  least,  there  is  assuredly  a  sufficient  supply, 
not  only  for  that  purpose,  but  also  for  exportation.  All  the 
zinc  now  produced  in  Great  Britain  is  trifling  in  quantity, 
and  quite  insufficient  for  the  demand  ;  so  that  a  large  quan- 
tity is  imported  annually  into  that  island,  chiefly  from  Ger- 
many and  Belgium.  The  importation  of  zinc  into  England, 
in  the  year  1833,  exceeded  six  millions  and  a  half  of  pounds — 
a  fact  which  may  give  us  an  idea  of  the  importance  of  this 
metal  as  an  article  of  commerce. 

Among  the  productive  mineral  resources  of  Iowa  and 
Wisconsin,  the  at  present  despised  zinc  ore  may  claim  no 
contemptible  rank. 

IKON    ORE. 

"The  iron  ore  of  this  district  is  of  excellent  quality,  and 
in  unlimited  abundance.     I  explored,  a  few  years  since,  in 


254  APPENDIX. 

company  with  Professor  Troost,  geologist  of  Tennessee,  the 
iron  mines  of  that  State,  which  already  furnish  iron  to  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  Western  States.  And  though  I  have 
seen  no  proof  that  iron  exists  in  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  in 
deposits  as  extensive  as  in  Tennessee,  yet  the  locations  of 
iron  ore  are  numerous,  and  the  quality  of  the  ore,  in  general, 
is  as  good. 

"  In  some  of  the  townships,  especially  in  the  '  Missouri 
limestone,'  on  the  Wisconsin  river,  iron  ore  was  found  scat- 
tered in  innumerable  fragments  over  the  entire  surface,  and 
of  a  quality  so  rich  as  to  be  crystallized  in  much  perfection. 
Near  the  Makoqueta,  my  sub-agents  reported  the  discovery 
of  large  masses  of  iron  ore,  occurring  over  a  very  consider- 
able district  of  country.  The  reports  and  specimens  from 
that  portion  of  the  district  induce  me  to  believe  that  there 
iron  ore  can  be  found,  on  the  surface  alone,  sufficient  to  sup- 
ply several  iron-furnaces  for  years  to  come. 

"  Some  of  the  specimens  from  these  localities  are  the 
richest  and  most  beautiful  variety  of  pipe-ore  I  have  ever 
seen,  exhibiting  a  miniature  resemblance  to  the  basaltic 
columns  of  Staffa,  or  the  Giant's  Causeway. 

"  Much  of  it  is  the  hematite,  the  purest  and  most  produc- 
tive form  of  the  hydrated  brown  oxide.* 

"  In  many  of  these  locations,  where  iron  ore  is  found  in 
abundance,  fuel,  water-power,  and  the  limestone  for  flux,  are 
at  hand.  In  the  northern  portion  of  the  district,  however, 
the  scarcity  of  fuel  presents  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  productive  iron-works. 

'*  In  Dr.  Locke's  report,  under  the  head  '  magnetical  node,' 
will  be  found  an  interesting  account  of  a  remarkable  magne- 
tical phenomenon,  which  seems  to  indicate  the  presence  of 

♦  These  ores  of  iron  yield  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  metal. 


GEOLOGY.  255 

some  enormous  mass  of  iron,  or  (if  the  expression  be  allow- 
ed) some  '  subterraneous  iron-mountain,'  which  may  resem- 
ble, except  in  position,  that  of  Missouri.  Tlic  locality  indi- 
cated is  on  the  Wapsipinecon  ;  and  the  axis  of  this  node,  as 
Dt  Locke's  chart  shows,  is  near  the  line  dividing  townships 
eighty-two  and  eighty-three,  and  about  six  miles  west  of  the 
fifth  principal  meridian. 

"  The  utility  of  magnetical  observations  on  the  dip  and 
intensity  of  the  needle,  as  an  indication  of  the  presence  of 
iron,  and  perhaps,  also,  of  great  masses  of  the  brown  oxide, 
IS  indisputable  ;  and  I  consider  myself  fortunate  in  having 
been  able  to  add  to  the  other  materials  whereby  to  decide 
the  value  of  the  various  locations  of  mineral  lands  in  this 
district,  the  delicate  and  varied  experiments  of  Dr.  Locke. 

''  The  variation-chart  appended  to  that  gentleman's  report 
shows  a  striking  cliUcrence  in  the  variation  of  the  needle 
within  a  very  short  distance  ;  and  the  greatest  variation  cor- 
responds, in  a  remarkable  manner,  with  the  best  locations  of 
iron  ore  of  which  actual  discoveries  were  made.  If  from 
this  we  may  conclude  that  the  variation  is  increased  by  the 
presence  of  large  masses  of  ore,  the  above  chart  would  use- 
fully guide  a  further  examination  after  the  localities  of  iron 
ore  in  the  district.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered,  that 
it  is  the  protoxide  which  chiefly  acts  upon  the  needle,  and 
that  the  same  phenomenon  may  possibly  be  caused  by  com- 
j)aratively  small  veins  of  that  variety,  as  by  a  large  mass  of 
the  brown  oxide. 

*'  The  richness  of  the  iron-veins  in  this  district  cannot  be 
correctly  known  until  mines  shall  actually  be  opened  ;  which 
has  not  yet  been  done  in  any  part  of  it.  But  more  encourag- 
ing or  more  numerous  surface-indications  of  an  abundant 
supply  of  this  useful  metal  can  hardly  offer  themselves  to 
the  notice  of  the  geologist,     in  a  country  more  thickly  set- 


256  APPENDIX. 

lied,  and  with  skill  and  capital  to  spare,  these  would  speedily 
cause  and  justify  the  employment  of  whole  villages  of 
workmen. 

"  To  incidental  causes  alone,  and  not  to  any  natural  defici- 
ency of  material,  must  be  attributed  the  custom  of  import- 
ing annually  from  England,  into  this  countrj'-,  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  iron  for  railroads  and  other  purposes.  Enor- 
mous as  is  the  produce  of  Great  Britain's  iron-furnaces 
(amounting,  in  1833,  to  fifteen  hundred  millions  of  pounds), 
we  might  rival  it  in  America.  How  little  here  in  the  west, 
at  least,  we  have  hitherto  improved  our  natural  resources  in 
this  branch  of  commerce,  is  proved  by  the  thousands  of  tons 
of  rich  iron  ore  which  lie,  unappropriated  and  useless,  scat- 
tered over  the  territories  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin. 

*'  Coal. 

"  The  great  coal-field  of  Illinois  extends  its  nortliwestern 
margin  over  ten  or  twelve  townships  of  the  district,  chiefly 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Missisippi. 

"  One  seam  of  coal  only  was  discovered  cropping  out 
west  of  the  Missisippi ;  and  that  was  of  indifferent  quality, 
lying  in  the  north  half  of  section  twenty-seven,  township 
seventy-eight,  range  four  east  of  the  fifth  principal  meridian, 
on  Duck  creek.  Several  were  found  in  the  tongue  of  land 
which  lies  in  the  fork  between  Rock  River  and  the  Missi- 
sippi :  one  of  them  from  five  to  six  feet  in  thickness.  The 
quality  of  this  last  is  fair  :  and,  in  proportion  as  the  coal- 
diggings  extended,  the  quality  improved. 

"  Several  good  seams  of  coal  show  themselves  south  of 
the  district,  within  a  short  distance  of  its  southern  boundary ; 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  any  required  quantity  of  this  fuel 
may  be  procured   at   no  great  distance   from  the   mouth  of 


GEOLOGY.  257 

Rock  River,  wliicli  stream  enters  the  coiil-field  about  23 
miles  above  its  mouth,  and  has  several  good  scams  exposed 
in  the  banks. 

"  The  coal  in  this  vicinity  is  sure  to  become  valuable,  and 
to  be  in  great  demand,  for  the  reduction  of  such  ores  (espe- 
cially copper  ores)  as  are  raised  in  those  portions  of  the  dis- 
trict ^vhich  are  deficient  in  timber.  Some  town  in  this  neiirli- 
borhood,  or  a  little  south,  is  destined  to  become  the  Swansea 
of  Wisconsin,  and  to  receive,  in  its  numerous  furnaces,  the 
rich  produce  of  the  prairie  mines,  from  the  north  and  north- 
west. 

"  SALINES. 

**  Throughout  the  Western  States,  generally,  no  produc- 
tive salines  are  found  below  the  true  coal-measures.  They 
commonly  occur  in  some  of  the  lower  members  of  the  coal 
formation,  especially  in  the  white  sandstones  lying  within 
that  formation,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  its  margin. 
Such  are  the  well-known  saliferous  rocks  on  the  Kenhawa 
and  Muskingum. 

"  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  character  and  extent  of  the 
geological  formations  in  the  district  were  ascertained,  I 
ceased  to  expect  the  discovery  of  any  productive  salines, 
except,  perliaps,  in  the  extreme  southern  corner  of  the  tract, 
where  the  great  coal-field  of  Illinois  stretches  its  lowest  mem- 
bers over  a  few  townships. 

"  Every  surface-indication  confirmed  my  expectations. 
No  salt-springs,  not  a  single  salt-lick,  no  variegated  shales, 
not  one  of  the  usual  indications  of  salt,  were  discovered. 
Even  in  the  southern  townships,  within  the  coal-formation, 
the  thickness  of  the  strata  is  so  inconsiderable  that  the  chance 
is  very  slender  of  reaching  profitable  brine.  Salt,  therefore, 
cannot  be  reckoned  among  the  productive  minerals  of  Iowa 


258  APPENDIX. 

and  Wisconsin.  It  may,  probably,  be  obtanied  along  the 
head-waters  of  the  western  and  northeastern  tributaries  of  the 
Illinois  River. 

"  BUILDING-STONE. 

"  1  was,  for  a  time,  in  doubt  in  regard  to  the  value  of  the 
Wisconsin  limestone  as  a  building  material.  Where  it  has 
numerous  nodules  of  chert  distributed  through  its  mass,  it 
weathers  unequally,  the  nodules  become  detached,  and  its 
beauty  and  value  as  a  building-rock  are  much  lessened. 
This  occurs  chiefly  in  the  superior  portion  of  the  upper  beds  ; 
that  is,  over  the  southern  portion  of  the  surveyed  district. 

"  Much  of  the  limestone  that  is  taken  from  the  diggings 
crumbles,  also,  on  being  exposed  to  the  weather ;  yet  a  por- 
tion of  the  formation  will  yield  some  of  the  best  quarries  in 
the  world,  and  several  excellent  ones  are  already  opened. 
For  example,  on  the  Sinsinnewa  Mound,  at  Mineral  Point, 
at  the  Four  Lakes,  and  (but  not  so  good)  on  the  Peccaton- 
nica..  This  excellent  building-stone  chiefly  occurs  in  the 
lower  portion  of  the  upper  beds  of  the  clifl"  limestone,  and 
also  in  the  lower  beds  of  the  '  Missouri  limestone.'  It  is  of 
a  beautiful  uniform  light-yellow  color,  compact,  fine-grained, 
sharp-angled,  capable  of  receiving  a  handsome  finish,  and,  if 
well  selected,  calculated  to  endure,  uninjured,  for  ages.  It 
is  very  readily  quarried  in  square  blocks  from  six  inches  to 
a  foot  in  thickness  ;  can  be  obtained,  however,  double  or 
treble  that  thickness,  and  of  any  required  horizontal  extent. 
The  labor  of  quarrying  is  light,  in  consequence  of  the  rock 
being  exposed  in  cliff's,  so  as  to  preclude  the  necessity  of 
excavation. 

"  In  a  recent  geological  notice  from  England,  it  is  stated 
that  Mr.  De  la  Beclie,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Barry  and  the 


GEOLOGY.  259 

veteran  father  of  English  geology  (William  Smith),  has  been 
intrusted  by  the  British  government  with  the  care  of  selecting 
the  material  of  which  the  new  houses  of  Parliament  were  to  be 
constructed  ;  and,  after  a  tour  made  in  the  course  of  last  year 
for  this  express  purpose,  to  the  points  where  the  best  building 
stones  were  supposed  to  be  quarried,  they  made  choice  of  the 
magnesian  limestone  of  Yorkshire,  remarkable  for  the  dura- 
bility of  its  color,  texture,  and  sharpest  forms,  as  exemplified 
in  the  noble  old  churches  of  that  country.  But  this  magne- 
sian limestone  of  Yorkshire,  thus  selected  by  some  of  the 
most  experienced  geologists  in  the  world  as  the  best  building 
stone  in  England,  is,  as  we  have  already  shown,  if  not  the 
equivalent  of  the  cliff  limestone  of  Wisconsin,  a  rock  very 
closely  resembling  it.  The  inference  is,  that  some  of  the 
strata  of  the  cliff  limestone  of  Wisconsin  may  be  expected  to 
furnisli  building  materials  of  a  quality  the  most  superior. 

"  The  canal  engineers  on  Rock  River  complained  much 
that  they  could  find  no  durable  building  stone,  having  quar- 
ried in  the  wdiite  limestone  which  occurs  in  the  margin  of  the 
great  coal-field.  This  rock  (at  that  point,  at  least)  is  little 
suitable  for  building  purposes.  Had  these  gentlemen 
ascended  the  Missisippi  to  the  high  land  above  the  Mako- 
queta  for  material,  they  would  have  found  quarries  of  the 
building  stone  above-described,  and  their  locks  mic^ht  have 
bid  defiance  to  the  ravages  of  time. 

*'  Near  Iowa  city,  and  in  several  other  localities  along  the 
junction  of  the  cliff  limestone  and  the  coal-measures,  occurs 
a  white  limestone,  which  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
above.  It  is  capable  of  receiving  a  good  pohsh  ;  and,  being 
studded  with  a  beautiful  fossil  coralline  (the  stylina  of 
Lesueur),  forms  a  pretty  variegated  marble.  One  of  my 
sub-agents  found  a  settler  building  his  milk-house  of  this 
showy  material,  in  which  the  cyathophyllum  of  Goldfuss  was 


260  APPENDIX. 

intermixed  with  the  styhna.  Its  value  as  a  marble  may  be 
considerable,  should  it  be  obtained  in  blocks  of  sufficient  size. 
In  polishing,  however,  the  organic  structure  of  the  coralline 
causes  cellular  imperfection  on  its  surface. 

"  MILLSTONES. 

''  In  section  twenty-two,  township  eighty-nine,  range  three 
west  of  the  fifth  principal  meridian,  the  United  States  sur- 
veyors had  reported  a  '  millstone  quarry.'  There  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  no  better  foundation  for  this  report 
than  the  presence  of  some  granite  boulders,  very  numerous 
on  the  northern  portion  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  also  throughout  the  western  ranges  of  Iowa. 
These  erratic  boulders  constitute  a  peculiar  feature  in  the 
prairie  scenery,  and  are  often  of  gi'eat  size.  One  was 
reported  to  me  by  a  sub-agent,  somewhat  indefinitely,  as 
being  '  as  large  as  a  steamboat.'  A  smaller  one,  afterwards 
measured,  was  eight  feet  high,  and  ninety  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence. They  are  composed  of  granite,  green  stone,  porphyry, 
and  other  primitive  rocks. 

"  Similar  boulders,  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  are,  in  default 
of  more  suitable  materials,  sometimes  employed  to  make 
millstones  ;  but  the  labor  of  the  manufacture  from  these 
primitive  rocks  is  very  great,  and  a  'millstone  quarry'  of 
such  a  character  cannot  be  considered  of  value. 

"In  the  course  of  a  geological  reconnoissance  of  the  State 
of  Indiana  (which,  as  geologist  of  that  State,  I  had,  two 
years  since,  occasion  to  make),  I  found  good  millstone  quar- 
ries in  a  rock  formation  whicli  is  the  equivalent  of  that  of 
Wisconsin,  and  I  hoped  to  make  similar  discoveries  in  the 
course  of  this  survey  ;  but  I  have  seen  no  rock,  cither  in 
Iowa  or  Wisconsin,  which  combines  hardness  and  porosity 
enough  to  render  it  suitable  for  this  useful  purpose. 


GEOLOGY.  261 

OTHER  MINERALS. 

*'  No  minerals  of  much  value,  except  those  described  in 
the  preceding  sections,  were  detected  in  the  district. 

"Chalcedony,  agate,  jasper,  and  cornelian,  were  found,  but 
not  in  great  perfection. 

"  On  the  southwest  quarter  of  section  seventeen,  township 
eighty-four,  range  five  east  of  the  fifth  principal  meridian,  in 
the  Mineral  Point  and  Blue  River  lead-mines,  besides  several 
other  localities,  was  found  a  white  rock,  which,  by  disinte- 
gi-ation,  forms  a  white  plastic  material  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain  :  it  is  a  hydrate  of  silica,  containing  a  small 
per  centage  of  alununa,  and  is  similar  to  that  substance  whicli 
forms  what  are  misnamed  the  *  chalk  banks,'  below  Cape 
Girardeau,  Missouri.  If  obtained  in  sufiicient  quantities,  it 
would  be  of  value  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  ;  but  1 
failed  to  discover  any  extensive  or  continuous  stratum  of  this 
nnncral.  It  has  too  large  a  per  centage  of  silex,  and  too 
little  alumina,  to  rank  as  a  true  kaolin. 

"  No  appreciable  quantity  of  silver  was  discovered  in  any 
of  the  ores  of  lead  subjected  to  analysis  ;  neither  was  any 
sulphuret  of  silver  (as  it  occurs  in  the  lead  mines  of  the 
Hartz)  found  in  this  district.* 

*'  In  one  or  two  specimens  of  galena,  vestiges  of  arsenic 
were  detected. 

*'  Little  or  no  antimony  is  found  in  coml)ination  with  the 
lead  ore  of  this  district ;  a  circumstance  which  increases  the 
value  of  the  ore,  for  lead  ore  contaminated  with  antimony  is 
of  difiicult  reduction. 

"  At  McKnight's  diggings,  at  Mineral  Point,  there  occurs 
along  with  the  galena  the  *  black  lead  ore  '  of  the  mineralo- 

*  Ores  of  silver  are  rarely,  if  ever,  found  in  this  geological  formation. 


262  APPENDIX. 

gist,  which  is  the  carbonate  of  lead  with  a  small  admixture 
of  sulphuret  of  lead. 

"  Crystals  of  the  sulphato-tri-carbonate  of  lead  have  been 
obtained  from  some  of  the  diggings  in  Wisconsin. 

"  Manganese,  a  metallic  oxide,  useful  in  various  manufac- 
tures, w^as  found  (but  not  in  a  pure  form,  nor  in  very  large 
quantities)  among  the  earthy  materials  in  the  fissures  of  the 
cliiT  limestone. 

'*  In  some  of  the  richest  lead  mines,  very  fine  specimens 
of  cr}^stallized  iron  pyrites  are  associated  with  the  sulphuret 
of  lead — some  of  it  (capillary  pyrites)  brilliant  and  delicate 
beyond  any  I  had  ever  before  seen.  It  is  composed  of  fasces 
or  clusters  of  silk-like  threads,  of  a  pale  golden-yellow  color, 
which  may  be  readily  separated  with  the  point  of  a  knife. 

SOILS. 

"  An  item  in  my  instructions  required  me  to  report  '  such 
facts  as  will  serve  to  convey  some  idea  of  the  value  and  pro- 
ductiveness '  of  the  district  under  consideration. 

"  In  obedience  to  this  instruction,  I  have  analyzed,  with 
care,  the  soils  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin  ;  and  the  result  of  this 
analysis,  extended  to  fifteen  different  specimens  selected  from 
the  various  parts  of  the  district,  is  truly  remarkable. 

*'  It  is  a  common,  and  usually  a  correct  remark,  that 
mineral  regions  are  barren  and  unproductive.  '  If  a  stranger,' 
as  Buckland  has  well  expressed  it  in  the  opening  to  liis 
Bridgewater  Treatise,  *  if  a  stranger,  landing  at  the  extremity 
of  England,  were  to  traverse  the  whole  of  Cornwall  and  the 
north  of  Devonshire,  and,  crossing  to  St.  David's,  sliould 
make  the  tour  of  all  North  Wales,  and  passing  tlience 
through  Cumberland,  by  the  Isle  of  Man,  to  the  southwestern 
shore  of  Scotland,  should  proceed,  cither  by  the  hilly  region 


GEOLOGY.  263 

of  llie  bonier  counties,  or  along  ilie  Grampians,  to  llie  Ger- 
man ocean,  lie  would  conclude,  from  such  a  journey  of  many 
lumdred  miles,  that  Britain  was  a  thinly-peopled,  steril 
region,  whose  principal  inhabitants  were  miners  and  moun- 
taineers.' 

"  Not  so  the  traveller  through  the  mining  districts  of 
Western  America.  These  alTord  promise  of  liberal  reward, 
no  less  to  the  husbandman  than  to  the  miner  ;  and  a  chemical 
examination  of  the  soils  gives  assurance  that  the  promise 
will  be  amply  fulfilled. 

"  The  mode  of  analysis  adopted  was,  in  its  general  fea- 
tures, the  same  which  has  been  recommended  by  Dr.  Dana, 
of  Lowell,  and  adopted  by  the  geologist  of  Massachusetts. 
I  have  carried  it  out,  however,  in  regard  to  the  salts  found  in 
the  most  interesting  specimens,  into  more  minute  detail  than 
that  simple  and  practical,  rather  than  rigidly  accurate,  mode 
of  analysis  presupposes. 

*'  The  following  table,  with  the  appended  notes,  exhibits, 
with  sufHcient  accuracy  for  practical  purposes,  the  propor- 
tions of  organic  and  of  earthy  matter,  the  per  centage  of 
saline  ingredients,  and  the  specific  gravity  of  each  specimen 
of  soil.  The  specimens  were  selected  from  the  different 
formations — chielly,  of  course,  from  the  cliff  limestone  ;  they 
were  taken  from  about  six  inches  below  the  surface,  and, 
with  a  single  exception  (No.  13),  from  wild  lands.  They 
may  be  considered  a  fair  average  of  the  virgin  soils  of  the 
district. 


264 


APPENDIX. 


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266  APPENDIX. 

"  To  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  results  obtained  from  the 
above  table,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  organic  matter  of 
the  soil  (sometimes  called  gcine) — the  food  of  plants — the 
substance,  wliich,  by  the  action  of  air  and  water,  has  been 
prepared,  or  is  in  course  of  preparation,  to  enter  into  the 
circulation  of  the  plant, — is  that  portion  of  the  soil  which 
chiefly  communicates  to  it  its  prolific  qualities  ;  and  that,  all 
other  things  being  equal,  a  soil  may  be  expected  to  be  pro- 
ductive, in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  oi'ganic  matter  it 
contains.* 

"  Tins  organic  matter  is  in  part  soluble,  and  in  part  inso- 
luble, in  alkali.  The  soluble  portion  of  it  is  supposed,  with 
much  plausibility,  to  be  that  which  is  already  prepared  to 
become  nutriment  for  plants  ;  the  insoluble  portion  is 
regarded  as  that  which,  by  the  action  of  air  and  moisture, 
and  other  influences,  will  hereafter  become  so. 

"  If  this  theory  be  an  accurate  one,  it  follows  that  those 
soils  which  contain  a  large  proportion  of  soluble  organic 
matter  will  be  fertile  for  the  time  ;  but  that  they  must  also 
contain  a  good  supply  of  insoluble  geine  to  preserve  their 
fertility.  And  thus  the  column  of  soluble  organic  matter  in 
the  table  is  that  which  measures  the  present  productiveness, 
and  that  of  insoluble  organic  matter  th^t  which  indicates  the 
durability  of  the  soil. 

"  The  salts  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  a  soil  are 
considered  by  agricultural  chemists  as  its  stimulating  ingi'c- 
dient.  Chaptal,  in  his  ^  Chemistry  applied  to  Agriculture,' 
says  (a  little  fancifully,  perhaps),  '  The  salts  are  to  plants, 
what  spices  and  marine  salts  are  to  man.'t     It  is  certain  that 

"  *  An  exception  to  this  rule,  which  should  not  be  overlooked,  exists  in 
the  case  of  bog  or  peat  soils  ;  which,  however,  possess  in  general  but  little 
soluble  organic  matter." 

*'  t  Dr.  Dana  improves  on  this  idea.  He  says :  '  The  earths  are  the 
plates,  the  salts  the  seasoning,  and  the  geine  the  food  of  plants.'  " 


/ 


GEOLOGY.  ''^♦)7 

the  salts  in  any  soil  exert  upon  the  organic  matter  a  chemical 
action,  and  contribute  to  regulate  and  facilitate  the  process 
of  nutrition.  Without  an  adequate  supply  of  saline  material, 
then,  a  soil  lacks  one  of  the  essential  ingredients  of 
fecundity. 

"  To  form  an  estimate,  from  the  above  table,  of  the  quality 
of  the  Wisconsin  soils,  it  is  necessary  to  compare  its  results 
with  similar  results  obtained  in  countries  in  which,  by  actual 
culture,  the  value  of  the  soil  has,  to  some  extent,  been 
proved.  The  difficulty  here  is,  that  such  analyses  of  soils 
have  very  rarely  been  made  or  recorded.  Professor  Hitch- 
cock, in  his  Report,  of  the  year  1838,  on  the  Economical 
Geoloirv  of  Massachusetts,  furnishes  a  valuable  table  of  this 
kind,  exhibiting  the  analyses  of  one  hundred  and  twenty -five 
specimens,  which,  as  he  informs  us,  may  be  considered  as 
about  the  average  quality  of  the  soils  of  that  State.  He 
adds  :  '  As  this  is  probably  the  first  attempt  that  has  been 
made  to  obtain  the  amount  of  geine  in  any  considerable 
innnber  of  soils,  we  cannot  compare  the  results  with  those 
obtained  in  other  places.  They  will  be  convenient,  however, 
for  comparison  with  future  analyses.' 

"  And  they  do  accordingly  furnish  data  for  a  comparison, 
both  interesting  and  important,  between  the  soil  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  that  of  Wisconsin. 

"  The  followiniT  are  the  results  obtained  from  Professor 
Hitchcock's  table  : 

Average  quantity  of    soluble  geine   (organic 

matter) 3.90  per  cent. 

Average  quantity  of  insoluble  geine  (organic 

matter) 3.70  per  cent. 

Average  specific  gravity  of  soil    -         -         -  2.44        " 


268  APPENDIX. 

"  My  own  table,  as  will  have  been  remarked,  shows  the 
results  for  the  soils  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin  to  be — 

Average  quantity  of  soluble  organic  matter   -  4.80  per  cent. 
Average  quantity  of  insoluble  organic  matter  5.13 
Average  specific  gravity  of  soil    -         -         -  1.84 


"  The  first  result  which  strikes  the  eye  is  the  large  amount 
of  organic  matter  in  the  Iowa  and  Wisconsin  soils,  compared 
with  those  of  Massachusetts — nearly  one-third  greater. 

"  The  second  is  the  great  specific  gravity  of  the  ^Massa- 
chusetts  soil,  compared  with  those  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin — 
nearly  one-third  greater. 

"  A  more  careful  inspection  shows  that  the  amount  of 
organic  matter  is,  almost  to  mathematical  accuracy,  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  soils. 

"  It  would  be  a  hasty  inference  thence  to  deduce  the  con- 
clusion that  soils  are  rich  in  geine,  in  proportion  to  their 
specific  lightness  ;  yet  the  coincidence,  in  this  respect,  is 
marked  and  worthy  of  attention. 

"  If  further  analysis  of  soils  in  various  portions  of  this  and 
other  countries  should  exhibit  similar  results,  it  would  appear 
that  a  simple  trial  of  the  specific  gravity  of  a  soil  may,  in  a 
general  way,  furnish  an  approximating  test  of  its  fertility. 

"  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  dark  mould  which  pi'evails  over  a 
large  proportion  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  so  rich  in  geine, 
and  of  so  small  specific  gravity,  has  proved  itself,  wherever 
the  farmer  has  trusted  to  its  certain  returns,  instead  of  attempt- 
ing the  more  hazardous  venture  of  the  mine,  an  excellent  and 
productive  soil ;  especially  adapted  to  the  culture  of  every 
species  of  culinary  vegetables  and  small  grain,  and  produc- 
ing, probably,  as  good  Indian  corn  as  the  State  of  New  York, 
or  any  other  State  of  the  same  latitude. 

"  It  will  be  observed,  from  the  table,  that  the  power  of 


GEOLOGY.  2(39 

abj>orption  is  generally  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  geine 
and  the  lightness  of  the  soil.* 

"  This  is  an  important  item  to  the  cultivator.  Lands  pos- 
sessing this  power  in  a  considerable  degree  readily  absorb 
the  dew  in  dry  weather  ;  and,  in  wet  weather,  do  not  suffer 
the  superfluous  rain  to  accumulate  on  the  surface. 

"  A  striking  feature  in  the  character  of  the  Iowa  and  Wis- 
consin  soils,  as  the  table  shows,  is  the  entire  absence,  in 
most  of  the  specimens,  of  clay,  and  the  large  proportion  of 
silex.  Tliis  silex,  however,  docs  not  commonly  show  itself 
here  in  its  usual  form — that  of  a  quartzose  sand.  It  appears 
as  a  fine,  almost  impalpable,  siliceous  powder,  frequently 
occurring  in  concreted  lumps  that  resemble  clay  ;  and, 
indeed,  it  was  often  reported  to  me  incorrectly  as  clay — an 
error  ultimately  detected  by  analysis. 

"  This  almost  impalpable  powder,  the  chief  constituent  and 
almost  sole  residuum  of  the  Iowa  and  Wisconsin  soils,  is  so 
highly  conmiinutcd,  that,  when  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope, for  the  most  part,  its  atoms  present  no  crystalline  or 
even  granular  appearance. 

"  This  fine  siliceous  residuum,  after  being  boiled  with 
strong  aqua  regia,  lost  but  10  per  cent.  ;  of  which  but  5  per 
cent,  was  alumina. 

"  This  absence  of  any  material  per-centage  of  clay  in  the 
soils  under  consideration  prevents  the  rolling  lands  from 
washing  away ;  and  it  imparts  to  the  streams  a  crystal  clear- 
ness, which  even  after  heavy  rains  is  hardly  disturbed.  The 
appearance  of  these  transparent  rivulets  flowing  over  a  soil, 


"  *  '  In  general,  the  more  finely  the  parts  of  a  soil  are  divided,  the  better 
they  absorb  water.' — Chaptal. 

"  This  applies  particularly,  as  the  sequel  will  show,  to  the  soils  in 
question." 


270  APPENDIX. 

which  when  moistened  by  rain  is  often  of  an  inky  blackness, 
arrests,  by  its  singularity,  the  eye  of  a  stranger. 

"  Whether  the  lack  of  clay  in  the  Iowa  and  Wisconsin 
soils  will  render  them  less  durable,  may  be  doubted.  A 
coarse  sandy  soil,  the  open  pores  of  which  suffer  the  rain  to 
percolate,  carrying  with  it  the  nutritive  geine  from  the  surface, 
requires  an  admixture  of  clay  before  it  can  become  rich  and 
durable  ;  but  the  minute  grained  siliceous  powder  of  this  dis- 
trict forms  a  species  of  soil  entirely  different  from  the  above 
— one  which,  without  any  such  admixture,  retains  moisture 
and  geine  in  much  perfection. 

"  I  believe  it  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the 
sugar  beet,  which  flourishes  best  in  a  loose  fertile  mould,  and 
which  has  of  late  become,  in  some  European  countries,  an 
important  article  of  commerce.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
amount  of  beet  sugar  manufactured  in  France  during  the  last 
year  was  100,000,000  pounds,  and  in  Prussia  and  Germany 
30,000,000  pounds.  In  the  western  part  of  Michigan,  in  as 
northern  a  latitude,  and  in  a  climate  similar  to  that  of  Wiscon- 
sin, 240,000  pounds  are  reported  by  the  papers  of  that  state 
(how  accurately  I  know  not)  to  have  been  manufactured  du- 
ring last  season. 

"  In  concluding  this  brief  notice  of  the  soils  of  this  district, 
which  I  regret  that  time  does  not  permit  me  to  extend,  I  may 
add,  that  I  know  of  no  country  in  the  world,  with  similar 
mineral  resources,  which  can  lay  claim  to  a  soil  as  fertile  and 
as  well  adapted  to  the  essential  purposes  of  agriculture." 


(B.) 


Extract  from  Mr.  Owen's  Report  to  Congress. 

*'  EARTHWORK    ANTIQUITIES    IN    WISCONSIN    TERRITORY. 

''  I  present  this  subject,  not  as  a  discovery,  but  merely  to 
add  such  evidence  to  the  discoveries  and  pubhcations  of  otliers 
as  seem,  from  the  doubts  I  have  heard  so  repeatedly  expressed, 
to  be  necessary  to  convince  the  majority  of  readers  of  their 
correctness.  In  the  34th  volume  of  '  Silliman's  Journal,'  is 
a  communication  from  Richard  C.  Taylor,  Esq.,  on  the  sub- 
ject of  these  idenical  works,  in  which  he  describes  them  as 
being  '  in  the  form  of  animal  effigies.'  Tlie  figures  given  by 
Mr.  Taylor  arc  so  unlike  any  ancient  tumuli  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  that  I  had,  ever  since  noticing  them,  felt  a  strong 
desire  to  examine  the  originals.  On  entering  Wisconsin,  I 
was  so  engaged  in  other  pursuits,  that  1  had  forgotten  the 
'  effigies,'  until,  upon  examining  the  '  sandstone  blulfs,'  eight 
miles  east  of  the  Blue  Mounds,  I  literally  stumbled  over  one 
of  ihem,  overgrown  with  the  rank  prairie  grass.  I  was  at 
once  convinced  of  the  correctness  of  Mr.  Taylor's  representa- 
lions,  and  not  a  little  astonislied  that  some  well-informed  per- 


272  APPENDIX. 

sons  there,  in  the  midst  of  these  strange  groups,  should  still 
pretend  to  dispute  their  artificial  origin.  The  same  ambition 
to  exercise  an  independent  judgment  might  lead  the  same 
individuals  to  dispute  that  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  are  arti- 
ficial ;  the  same  argument  might  be  used — '  that  they  just 
come  so  in  the  earth.'  Without  going  into  any  discussion  in 
regard  to  the  origin,  histor}'',  or  design  of  these  figures,  I 
shall  merely  represent  their  fonn  and  dimensions  with  as  much 
accuracy  as  a  very  particular  sur^^ey  of  a  few  of  them  ena- 
bled me  to  attain.  I  shall  not  even  pretend  to  say  that  they 
are  like  animals  ;  for  this  the  reader  can  determine  for  him- 
self. I  have  not  attempted,  in  any  degree,  to  represent  them 
as  they  might  once  have  been,  but  exactly  as  I  found  them  on 
the  day  that  I  surveyed  them. 

"  The  method  pursued  in  making  the  surveys  is  represent- 
ed in  plate  No.  1,  Antiquities.  Here,  for  convenience,  I  make 
use  of  the  names  of  the  parts  of  an  animal.  The  figure  deli- 
neated is  the  foremost  one  of  the  two,  between  which  the  road 
passes,  and  which  are  on  the  verge  of  a  small  prairie,  about 
ten  miles  east  of  Madison,  the  capital  of  Wisconsin.  Small 
stakes  were  set  in  the  following  points,  viz  :  the  eye,  the  fore 
foot,  the  shoulder,  the  hip,  the  hind  foot,  and  the  end  of  the 
tail.  The  angular  positions  of  these  and  other  points  were 
determined  by  measuring,  with  a  tape  measure,  the  sides  of 
the  several  'triangles  Avhich  those  points  form,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  determined  side  of  one  triangle  shall  be  the  base 
of  a  new  one.  After  the  determination  of  all  the  triangles, 
their  several  diameters  and  distances  were  measured  and 
noted ;  and,  finally,  to  determine  the  bearing  of  the  whole 
figure,  the  magnetical  bearing  of  the  line  from  the  hip  to  the 
shoulder  was  registered  on  the  field-book. 

The  following  is  a  copy  from  the  field-notes,  in  reference 
to  the  above  figures  : 


MOM  MENTS. 


273 


Triangles. 


Eye  to  shoulder,     -         -         -         - 

Slioiilder  lo  fool,     -         -         -         - 

Fore  foot  to  eye,     -         -         -         - 

Eye  to  nose,  _         .         _         _ 

Nose  to  shoulder,  -         -         -         - 

Eye  to  point  half  way  between  the  ears. 

Shoulder  to  same  point 

Shoulder  to  hip 

Fore  foot  to  hip 

Shoulder  to  hind  foot 

Hind  foot  to  hip 

Hip  to  the  tip  of  the  tail 

Hind  foot  to  the  tip  of  the  tail 


"  Diameters. 


Of  the  neck 
Of  the  fore  leg 
Of  the  body 
Of  the  hind  leg 
Of  the  tail     - 


"  Distances. 


From  the  eye  to  the  front 

From  one  ear  to  the  other 

From  shoulder  to  armpit 

From  shoulder  to  back 

From  hip  to  rump 

From  hip  to  flank 

From  hip  to  insertion  of  the  tail 

Length  of  the  throat 
13* 


Feet. 

Inches. 

23 

0 

29 

4 

37 

8 

20 

4 

3.3 

10 

11 

0 

24 

10 

38 

4 

57 

0 

47 

8 

28 

10 

38 

0 

41 

6 

Feet. 

Inches 

13 

0 

11 

0 

14 

7 

9 

9 

8 

0 

Feet. 

Inches. 

7 

6 

14 

0 

9 

9 

8 

4 

7 

0 

9 

7 

7 

6 

12     0 


274  APPENDIX. 

"  Observations. — Ears  distinctly  separated.  Two  trees, 
sixteen  inches  in  diameter,  growing  in  the  nose.  Ground 
sloping  gently  towards  the  feet.  Both  the  fore  and  hind 
legs  curved  a  little  backwards.  The  tail  a  little  hollowed  oh 
the  upper  side.  Height,  or  relief  of  the  figure  above  the 
natural  surface,  about  three  feet  ;  and  the  back  somewhat 
steeper  than  the  belly.  Bearing  of  hip  to  shoulder  N.  38° 
W. 

"  It  will  be  seen,  by  examining  the  above  notes,  that  they 
determine  twenty-five  points  in  the  circumference  of  the 
figure  ;  and  that  the  connecting  of  these  points  by  lines,  and 
thus  completing  the  outline,  permits  no  exercise  of  imagina- 
tion. The  figure  from  the  earth  is  simply  transferred  to  the 
paper,  on  a  scale  of  the  one  hundred  and  twentieth  part,  in 
linear  dimensions.  Seven  other  figures  were  surveyed  with 
the  same  degree  of  particularity,  and  the  distances  between 
them  and  the  relative  positions  of  the  same  group  accurately 
noted. 

"  The  '  military  road'  from  Prairie  du  Chien  to  the  Four 
Lakes,  after  crossing  the  Wisconsin  River,  and  ascendhig  a 
small  tributary,  occupies  the  height  or  dividing  ridge  between 
the  waters  of  the  Wisconsin  on  one  side,  and  those  of  Rock 
River  and  some  smaller  streams  on  the  other,  for  the  distance 
of  eighty  or  one  hundred  miles,  occasionally  descending  into 
a  moderate  valley,  and  crossing  a  small  rivulet,  a  head  branch 
of  some  of  the  incipient  streams.  Most  of  the  route  is  on  a 
high  open  prairie.  From  the  Blue  Mounds  eastward  to  the 
Four  Lakes,  the  country  abounds  with  the  earthwork  antiqui- 
ties, of  the  origin  of  which  the  present  aborigines  are  as 
ignorant  as  ourselves.  About  seven  or  eight  miles  eastward 
from  the  Blue  Mounds,  the  road  descends  into  tlie  valley  of 
a  head  branch  of  Sugar  River,  a  tributary  of  Rock  River ; 


MONUMENTS.  275 

and  licre,  near  u  blull  of  sandstone,  of  a  very  picturesque 
and  fantastic  outline,  connnence  our  particular  descriptions. 

"  There  is  a  group  of  works  about  eight  miles  east  of  the 
Blue  Mounds.  It  is  on  the  great  road  from  Prairie  da 
Chien,  through  Madison,  to  Lake  Michigan — a  road  so 
decidedly  marked  by  nature,  that  I  presume  it  has  been  the 
thoroughfare,  the  '  trail,'  the  great  '  war-path,'  ever  since  the 
region  in  the  vicinity  has  been  inhabited  by  migrating  man, 
and  will  continue  to  be  his  pathway  until  the  hills  and  the 
rivers  exchange  their  places.  The  sand-bluff  surmoiuitcd 
with  pines  is  here  a  picturesque  object  ;  and  the  streamlet 
and  springs  not  very  distant,  with  a  few  scattering  trees  for 
fire,  have  long  made  it  a  camping  ground.  Mr.  Taylor  has 
represented  only  one  of  the  two  'effigies'  which  occur  at 
this  point  ;  the  other  was  probably  so  overgrown  with  grass 
and  small  hazel-bushes  as  to  escape  his  observation.  Our 
encampment  was  near  this  place  ;  and  in  the  midst  of  some 
discussion  with  regard  to  the  tunmli,  they  were  opened  to 
see  w^hether  they  were  stratified,  and  whether  the  black 
mould  contiimed  underneath  them,  even  with  the  surrounding 
surface.  No.  2  was  composed  of  sand,  without  any  change 
to  mark  an  original  surface  below,  although  it  is  now  over- 
grown with  grass,  and  is  covered  with  a  thin  black  mould. 
The  whole  of  tliis  descent,  near  the  bottom  of  w4iich  the 
figure  lies,  has  evidently  been  formed  by  the  disintegration 
of  the  soft  incoherent  sandstone  bluff  contiguous  ;  and  at  the 
time  of  forming  this  tumulus,  it  was  very  probably  destitute 
of  loam  at  this  point,  as  it  now  is  at  a  point  still  nearer  the 
bluff.  A  section  of  the  embankment  near  the  gap  e.\hil)iled 
a  thin  line  of  this  loam,  even  with  what  might  be  supi)osed 
to  have  been  the  original  surface  of  the  ground.  Alluvial 
stratification  is  positive  proof  that  a  formation  is  not  artifi- 
cial ;  but  the  absence  of  a  base  of  mould   is  not  positive 


o-yg  ATPEMDIX. 

proof  of  the  same  thing;  for  the  constructors  may  have 
removed  the  surface  on  commencing  their  work.  Many  of 
our  tumuU  have  not  only  a  base  of  mould  marking  an  origi- 
nal surface,  but  ashes,  coals,  bones,  and  artificial  implements 
deposited  at  the  bases  of  tumuli,  of  various  forms  and 
heights,  from  two  to  seventy  feet. 

"  In  examining  the  tumuli  of  Wisconsin,  I  did  not  at  any 
place  discover  a  ditch  or  cavity  from  which  the  earth  to  con- 
struct them  had  been  taken.  They  abound  along  the  natural 
road,  occupying  the  fertile  and  commanding  hill-tops,  and 
the  gentle  slopes  into  the  valleys  ;  being  uniformly  raised 
from  a  smooth  and  well-formed  surface,  always  above  inun- 
dation, and  well  guarded  from  the  little  temporary  currents 
produced  by  showers. 

"  The  backs  of  the  '  effigies '  were  uniformly  placed  up- 
hill, and  the  feet  downward,  as  at  the  sand-bluff.  There  are 
some  points  on  the  surface  of  soft  ground  where  we  naturally 
expect  chasms,  rugce,  mammillary  points,  and  undulations. 
These  occur  from  the  uprooting  of  trees,  from  avalanches, 
from  the  settling  of  banks,  from  the  action  of  temporary 
streams  and  currents  of  water.  Mammillary  points  are 
often  left  along  the  sharp  crest  of  a  hill,  and  insular  mounds 
are  not  unfrequently  left  in  low  alluvial  bottoms — certain 
points  of  upland  having  withstood  that  action  of  the  cuiTcnts 
which  has  carried  away  and  degraded  the  surface  to  a  lower 
level.  But  there  arc  other  situations  where  we  expect  to 
find,  and  do  actually  find,  the  surface  evenly  graded  into 
smooth  undulations,  as  on  the  dividing  tables  between  the 
heads  of  streams,  and  in  the  tops  of  moderate  hills,  where 
no  current  has  room  to  accumulate  ;  and  especially  if  the 
same  region  be  prairie,  with  the  surface  protected  by  the 
strong  roots  of  wild  grasses. 

*'  Just  such  a  situation  is  this  part  of  Wisconsin  where  the 


MONUMENTS.  277 

geologist  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  meets  with  tliese  groups 
of  gigantic  basso-relievos,  which  appear  to  him  as  decidedly 
artificial  as  the  head  of  Julius  Caesar  on  an  ancient  coin,  not- 
witlistanding  anything  which  may  be  imagined  or  said  to  the 
contrary. 

[Another]  ''figure  is  about  one  mile  and  a  half  from  the 
bluff  above  described.  It  appears  to  be  sohtary  ;  lies  on  a 
low,  level,  smooth  ground,  and  seems  to  have  been  muti- 
lated ;  the  parts  which  I  have  called  the  legs  seem  to  have 
been  partially  washed  away.  If  intended  to  represent  an 
animal,  the  head  is  evidently  too  large,  and  the  attitude  very 
stiff  and  rectangular.  But  I  have  drawn  it  as  I  found  it, 
without  any  inclination  to  make  it  more  like  an  animal  than 
it  was  made  in  the  original  design,  with  all  the  defacements 
which  several  hundred  years  have  imprinted.  The  distance 
from  this  third  figure  to  the  next  group  is  diminished  on  the 
plate.  It  is  really  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  a  mile,  where, 
on  our  progress  towards  Madison,  we  approach  the  termina- 
tion of  the  valley  in  which  our  figures,  so  far,  have  been 
sketched.  Here,  upon  the  side  of  a  hill  sloping  gently  to- 
ward the  road,  are  three  figures,  and  an  embankment ;  the 
sizes,  distances,  and  relative  positions  of  which  have  all 
been  drawn  to  a  uniform  scale  of  forty  feet  to  the  inch. 

*'  Leaving  the  group  last  described,  and  proceeding  still 
eastwardly  towards  the  Four  lakes,  we  ascend  a  ridge,  and 
pass  out  of  the  valley  containing  the  six  figures  [above  des- 
cribed]. The  road  for  about  two  miles  lies  over  broken, 
tliuily-timbered  ridges ;  beyond  wliich  it  crosses  a  small 
prairie,  and  again  enters  woodland.  Just  at  the  entrance  of 
this  woodland  are  two  [other]  figures.  The  pathway  passes, 
with  scanty  space,  between  the  nose  of  the  one  and  the  tail 
of  the  otiier.  These  are  the  most  perfect,  if  we  consider 
them  as  '  effigies'  of  animals,  of  any  of  the  figures  here  re- 


X 


278  APPENDIX. 

presented,  and  are  singularly  alike  in  their  form  and  dimen- 
sions. A  short  distance  (500  or  600  feet)  to  tlic  west  of 
them  is  a  natural  swell  of  ground,  with  an  artificial  tumu- 
lus on  the  top  of  it,  overlooking  the  tw^o  figures. 

"  If  these  figures  were  originally  intended  to  represent 
animals,  they  might  have  been  much  more  distinct  and  speci- 
fic than  they  now"  are.  It  is  obvious  that  any  minute  deline- 
ations must  soon  be  obliterated  by  the  agency  of  the  weather. 
Most  of  them  have  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  the  ears,  or 
antlers,  apparently  too  large — at  least  it  appears  so  in  the 
drawings.  But  this  part,  in  the  originals,  is  not  raised  from 
the  ground  so  high  as  the  other  parts,  and  appears  like 
several  small  parts  trodden  dow^n  and  blended  together.  In 
the  eighth  figure,  especially,  there  is  a  decided  notch  or 
separation  still  remaining  between  the  two  horns  or  ears. 
They  are  the  favorite  resort  of  badgers,  which,  finding  them 
raised  and  dry,  have  selected  them  for  burrowing  ;  and  it  is 
wonderful  that  they  retain  their  outlines  so  perfectly.  But, 
above  all  other  creatures  civilized  man  will  obliterate  ihem 
the  most  speedily  ;  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the 
multitude  of  extraordinary  figures  raised  like  embossed 
ornaments  over  the  whole  of  this  part  of  the  country,  could 
not  be  accurately  measured  and  delineated  before  they  shall 
be  obliterated  for  ever.  The  reader  will  please  to  observe 
thai  these  observations  w^ere  made,  as  it  were,  by  stealth.  I 
had  other  duties  to  perform,  and  was  enabled  to  take  these 
measurements  by  an  enthusiasm  which  awoke  me  in  my  tent 
at  midnight,  assisted  me  to  prepare  my  breakfast  before  day, 
and  sent  me  into  the  cold  bleak  fields  on  a  November  morn- 
ing, to  finish  the  admeasurements  of  a  whole  group  of  figures 
before  the  usual  time  of  commencing  the  labors  of  the  day. 
I  had  no  time  to  turn  aside  to  examine  still  other  groups, 
evidently  more  extensive  and  interesting  than  those  which 


X 


MONUMENTS.  279 

wc  have  endeavored  lo  represent.  ^Ir.  Taylor  has  repre- 
sented llie  effigies  of  birds,  and  one  of  the  human  liirure,  as 
occurring  here  ;  and  f  am  happy,  vvitli  a  lull  conviction  of 
the  general  accuracy  of  his  representations,  to  call  the 
reader's  attention  to  his  interesting  paj)er. 

"  On  one  of  the  hills  I  saw  an  embankment  exactly  in  the 
form  of  the  cross,  as  it  is  usually  represented  as  the  emblem 
of  Christianity.  Some  of  the  surveyors  brought  in  sketches 
of  works  in  the  form  of  birds  with  wings  expanded  ;  and  I 
heard  of  others  in  the  form  of  lizards  and  tortoises.  From 
what  I  have  seen,  I  should  think  it  very  probable  that  these 
forms  arc  to  be  found.  But,  in  order  that  their  existence 
should  excite  in  the  public  that  interest  which,  as  relics  of 
ancient  history,  they  really  possess,  they  should  be  so  ex- 
actly surveyed  and  depicted  that  their  representations  can  be 
relied  upon  with  confidence.  I  object  to  the  very  careless 
and  imperfect  manner  in  which  most  of  our  antiquities  have 
been  examined,  by  which  they  have  been  rather  guessed  at 
than  surveyed.  Although  I  have  given  a  pledge  not  to 
undertake  to  make  animals  of  these  figures,  yet,  to  the  eyes 
of  all,  except  very  sagacious  people,  they  will  look  very  like 
animals  ;  and  the  question  will  arise,  what  kinds  of  animals 
were  intended  to  be  represented  ?  In  the  originals,  the  size 
is  so  great,  and  the  outline  more  or  less  obscured  by  herbage 
and  undershrubs,  that  the  impression  of  an  effigy  is  much 
less  decided  than  when  the  same  is  diminished  and  brought 
into  one  point  of  view,  in  which  all  the  parts  are  under  the 
eye  at  once.  A  comparison  of  the  difTerence  of  expression, 
form,  and  attitude,  does  not  strike  one  at  all  in  the  originals, 
while  it  is  very  decided  in  the  diminished  copies.  Mr.  Tay- 
lor suggests  that  those  were  intended  to  represent  the  bullalo, 
though  he  acknowledges  the  representation  to  be  iiuperfect, 
especially  in  wanting  the  '  hump.'     It  appears  to  me  that  the 


X 


2H0  appendix. 

figures  1,  2,  3,  and  6,  might  have  been  intended  as  effigies 
of  the  bear  ;  the  chimsy  proportions,  and  want  of  the  caudal 
appendage,  appear  like  that  animal.  Figures  5,  7,  and  8, 
have  decidedly  an  expression  of  agility  and  fleetness.  They 
may  have  been  intended  for  the  conger,  or  American  tiger — 
an  animal  still  existing  in  that  region.  The  only  general 
disproportion  to  that  animal  is  the  length  of  the  head." 


y 


(0.) 


CATALOGUE  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PLANTS  OF  THE  UPPER  MISSISIPPI 

[Mr.  Gcyer's  List,  with  Additions.] 


Platanus, 

Catalpa. 

Several  species  of  Anemone. 

Aquuligia, 

Dclphiniuni, 

Thalictrum, 

Menispermum, 

Nympliaea, 

Sangiiinaria, 

Nasturtiums,  several  species. 

Arabis, 

Cardaraine, 

Dentaria, 

Erysimum, 

Draba, 

Lepidium, 

Cleome. 

Polygala, 

Violet,  several  varieties. 

Grass  of  Parnassus. 


Sycamore. 


Columbine. 
Larkspur. 
Meadow  Rue. 
Moonseed. 
Water  Lily. 
Bloodwort. 

Wall-cress. 

Ladies'  Smock. 

Toothwort. 

Winter  cress,  hedge  mustard. 

Whitlow  grass. 

Cress. 

Milkwort,  3  species. 


282 


APPENDIX. 


Hypericum, 

Arenaria, 

Stcllaria, 

Spergula, 

Linum, 

Geranium  maculatum, 

Oxalis, 

Celastms, 

Euonymus, 

Rhamnus, 


Ceanothus, 

Vicia, 

Lathyrus, 

Phaseolus, 

Glycyrrliiza, 

Psoralia, 


Amorplia. 

Pelalostemon 

Dalea. 

Astragalus, 

Bastard  Vetch. 

Lupinus, 

Cercis, 

Polentilla, 


St.  Johnswort. 

Sandwort. 

Stitcliwort. 

Spurry. 

Flax. 

Cranes'  bill. 

Wood  sorrel 

Grape. 

Staff  tree. 

Spindletree. 

Buckthorn.  A  variety  of  this 
genus  is  used  for  tea  among 
the  Chinese  poor. 

Red  root,  New  Jersey  tea. 

Vetch. 

Vetchling,  everlasting  pea. 

Kidney  bean. 

Liquorice  root. 

There  are  several  species, 
viz.,  esculenta,  argophylla, 
cuspidata,  lanceolala, — 
called  by  the  Canadians 
pomme  de  prairie,  ponnne 
blanche,  and  pomme  de 
terre. 


Milk  vetch,  many  varieties. 

Lupin. 

Redbud. 

Cinquefoil. 


PLANTS. 


283 


Stiawbcrrv, 

Rosa, 

Crataegus, 

Epilol)ium, 

G:]iiollicra, 


Circajci, 

Myriopliylluin, 

llippiiris, 

Ribcs,  Uibcsia  and  Grossularia, 

Ifydrangca. 

Siuin, 

Alalia, 

Cornus, 

Galium, 

Aster, 

Erigcron, 

Solidago, 

Ambrosia, 

Xaiithium, 

Ilcliantlius, 

Hclciiium, 

Achillea, 

Senecio, 

Artemisia, 

Soiiclius, 

Lactuca, 


Phcllandrium  Aquaticum, 


Fragaria. 

Rose,  blaiida  and  lucida. 

Hawthorn. 

\N'illo\v  lierl). 

Tree  prinn-ose,  many  var., — 
serrulata,  ciespilosa,  albi- 
caidis,  pinnalifida,  l)icnnis. 

Enchanter's  nightshade. 

Water  millfuil. 

Mare's  tail. 

Currant  and  gooseberry. 

Water  parsnip. 

Spikenard. 

Dogwood. 

Bedstraw — allied  to  madder. 

Starwort,  10  var. 

Flcabane,  6  var. 

Golden  rod,  8  var. 

Bitterweed. 

Clot  burr. 

Sunflower. 

Sneezewort. 

Millfoil. 

RagAvort,  4  var. 

Wornnvood,  7  var. 

Sow  thistle. 

Lettuce,  a  new  species  not  in 

Herbarium  ;  arid  banks  of 

a  lake  formed   by  James' 

River. 
Fine  leaved  water  hendock, 

an  active  medicine,  delete- 


284 


APPENDIX, 


Leontodon, 
Mentha  Viridis, 


(( 


a 


Pulegium, 


Piperita, 
Wahu, 
Cornus  sericea, 


Eupatorium  perfoliatiim, 
Ranunculus  bulbosus, 

Aquatilis. 

Cymbalaria. 

Sceleratus. 

Repens. 

Abortivus. 


(( 


iC 


(< 


(( 


(( 


Vilis  riparia, 

Hieracium, 

Bear  grape. 

Vaccinium  tenellum, 

Lobelia, 

Campanula, 

Ash, 

Apocynum, 

Asclepias, 

Gentiana, 


Phlox. 

Heilotropium, 

Lithospermuin, 


rious  ;   horses,   on   eating, 
become  paralytic. 

Dent  de  lion. 

Spearmint. 

Pennyroyal. 

Peppermint. 

Indian  aiTow. 

Red  willow,  swamp  dog- 
wood ;  the  liber  is  used  by 
the  Sauks  for 
called  Kinicanik. 

Thoroughwort,  boneset. 

Buttercup. 


smoking. 


River  bank  grape  vine. 
Hawkweed. 

The  sugar  whortleberry. 

Several  var. 

Bellflower. 

Fraxinus. 

Indian  hemp. 

Wild  cotton,  swallowwort. 

Gentian,  8  var.  :  the  lutea, 
most  esteemed  in  medi- 
cine, not  one. 

Turnsol. 

Several  species.     The  roots 


PLANTS. 


285 


Myosotis, 

Hytlrophylluni, 

Lycopus, 

Monarda, 

Hedeoma, 

Solaniiin  nigrum  triflorum, 

i^hysalis, 

Pcntstcmon, 


Mimulus, 

Graliola, 

Veronica, 

Pedicularis, 

Verbena, 

Lysimachia, 

Gluux  niaritima, 

Utricularia, 

Planlago, 

Amaranthus, 

Chenopodium, 

Salsola, 

Salicornia, 

Rumex, 

Polygonum, 

Laurus  benzoin, 

Eleagnus  argentea, 


of    some  afford   a  lac   for 
dyeing  and  painting. 

Scorpion  grass. 

\\^iler  leaf. 

Water  lioreliound. 

Mountain  balm. 

Wild  peiniyroyal. 

Nightshade. 

Ground  cherry. 

Several  species.  The  grand i- 
florum,  a  beautiful  species 
about  3  feet  high,  is  found 
at  Prairie  Du  Chien  and 
other  points. 

Monkey  flower. 

Hedge  hyssop. 

Speedwell. 

Lousewort. 

Vervain. 

Loosestrife. 

Saltwort. 

Bladderwort. 

Plantain,  5  var. 

Amaranth,  prince's  feather. 

Goosefoot,  wormseed. 

Saltwort. 

Glasswort. 

Dock,  4  var. 

40  var.  (Persic,  buckwheat). 

Spicebush. 

Oleaster.     A  shrub    from  8 
lo  12  feet  high,  producing 


586 


APPENDIX. 


Shephcrdia  arg.. 


Eupliorbia, 
Callitriclie, 
Urtica, 
Parietaria, 
Morns  rubra, 
Ulmus  Americana, 
Fulva, 


(( 


Oslrya, 

Salix, 

Qucrcns, 


Juniperns, 

Sisyrinchium, 

Cypripcdinm. 

Convallaria, 

Uvularia, 

Allium  stel., 

"      anmilosum. 
Erytlironium, 
Trillium, 
Smilax, 
Triglochin, 
Polamogeton, 


a  dry,  farinaceons,  edible 
drupe,  about  the  size  of  a 
small  cherry. 

Similar  to  above,  called  by 
the  natives  rabbit  berry. 
Berries  small,  red,  cluster- 
ed, succulent,  acid. 

Resembling  cactus,  5  var. 

Water  star. 

Nettle. 

Pellitor}^ 

Red  mulberry. 

American  elm. 

Slippery  elm. 

Also  one  or  two  other  species. 

Hop-horn-beam. 

Willow,  many  species. 

Oak,  many  var. ;  w^liite,  red, 
black,  mountain,  overcup 
white  oak,  burr,  chinqua- 
pin, &:c. 

Juniper. 

Blue-eyed  grass. 

Lily  of  the  valley. 
Lily,  yellow  lily. 
Garlic. 


Dog's  tooth  violet. 
American  herb  Paris. 
Green  briar. 
Arrow  grass. 
Pond  Aveed. 


PLANTS. 


287 


Anmi, 

Sparganium, 

J  uncus, 

Tradescanlia, 

Alisma, 

Cypcnis, 

Dulicliium. 

Scirpus, 

Carex, 

Alopccurus, 

Pan  i  cum, 

Stipa, 

Agrostis, 

Poa, 

Festuca, 

Bromus, 

Triticum  wlical, 

Elvmiis, 


Atlicropogon. 

Scslcria, 

Ijoplurus. 

Crypsis, 

Beckmannia, 

Aridropogon, 

Strutliioptcris, 

E([uisctum, 

Baplisia  tincloria, 

Podophylluni, 


Wake  ro])in. 
Burr  reed. 
Ru.^h,  4  var. 
Spiderwort. 
XN'atcr  plantain. 
Cypress  grass. 

Club  rush. 

ScdiTc,  10  var. 

Foxtail  grass. 

Panic  grass. 

Silk  grass,  feather  grass,  long 
awned  grass. 

Bent  grass. 

]\Ieadow  grass,  4  var. 

Fescue  grass. 

Brome  grass. 

Dog  wheat. 

Wild  rye.  Also,  a  new  spe- 
cies of  Ely.  Or  a  new  ge- 
nus between  rye  and  bar- 
ley. 

Moor  grass. 

Tliorn  grass. 

Arrow  grass. 

Beard  grass. 

Fern. 

Horsetail. 

Wikl  indigo. 

May  apple,  otherwise  called 


288 


APPENDIX, 


Silene, 

Ladies'  slipper. 
Cassia  marilandica, 
Datura  stramonium, 

Black  root. 
Rattlesnake's  master 
Jerusalem  artichoke 
Humulus  lupulus, 
Hazel. 

Oxycoccus  macrocarpus, 
"  hispidulus, 


mandrake,     wild     lemon, 
duck's  foot. 
Wild  pink. 

American  senna. 
Devil's     apple,     Jamestown 
weed,  thorn  apple. 


Hop. 

The  red  cranberry. 

White  do.,     similar   to 

gaultheria,  or  partridge 
berry,  called  mountain  tea, 
used  as  substitute. 


Acer,  Maple. 

"     Sugar  Maple. 
Jufflans, 

Scaly  Bark  Hickory,  J.  Cortice  squamosa. 

Pignut  Hickory. 
Bitternut  Hickory. 
Swamp  Hickory. 
Black  Walnut. 

White  Walnut ;  or,  Butternut,  Juglans  cinerea. 
Locust,  black, 
white, 
honey. 
Cedar,  red. 
Pinus,  Pine. 
"      white, 
yellow. 


(< 


« 


(( 


PLANTS. 


280 


Pinus,  black. 

'•       spruce. 
Prickly  Asli,  Xantlioxyllum  I'raxincinn. 
Wikl  Plum. 
Wikl  Cherry. 
Cral)  Apple. 
Raspberry. 
Blackberry. 
Dewberry. 
Sumacli,  l\!ius 
Ilcni}). 

Isopyruni. 

Actaea  rubra. 

Uvaria  triloba. 

Leoiilice. 

Corydulis. 

Dielylra. 

JSisymbriuui. 

Stanley  a. 

Capsclla. 

Polanisia. 

Iludsonia. 

Claytonia,  Chickwecd. 

Xantlioxyllum,  Amer. 

Rhus  triloba. 

Sida,  coc. 

Hosachia. 

Oxytropis. 

Phaea. 

Homalobus. 

Dcsmodium. 

Schranbia. 

DarliiifTtonia. 

14 


Pencedanum. 

PolytOBuia. 

Osmorhiza. 

Syraphoricarpus. 

Vernonia 

Liatris. 

Kuhnia. 

Boltonia. 

Guticrrizzia. 

Aplopappus. 

Grindelia. 

Chrysopsis. 

Silphium. 

Iva  axil. 

Echinacea. 

Rudb/ccliia. 

Lcpachis. 

Cope  ops  is  tinct. 

Dysodia. 

Gaillardia. 

Hymenophyllus. 

Antennaria,  everlasting. 


290 


APPENDIX. 


Chamaerodos. 

Geum. 

Amelanchier. 

Gaura,  coc. 

Menzelia,  orn. 

Zizia,  aur. 

Thaspium. 

Navaretia. 

Convolvulus  stans. 

Evolvulus  Arg. 

Echinospermum. 

Onosmodium. 

EUisia. 

Lophantus. 

Physostegia. 

Androcera. 

Chelone. 

Monniera. 

Gerardia. 

Othocarpus. 

Castilleja. 

Orobanche. 

Oxybaphus,  Umbrella  Wort. 

Kochia. 

Obione. 

Atriplex. 


Cirsium,  4  var 

Nabalus,  3  var. 

Lygodesmia. 

Troximon. 

Forestiera. 

Acerates,  vir.  flo. 

Collomia. 

Comandra. 

Peristylus. 

Spiranthes. 

Ammianthium. 

Zigadenus,  Helonias. 

Elocliaris. 

Muhlenbergia. 

Yilfa. 

Calamagrostis. 

Arundo. 

Spartina. 

Aristida. 

Catabrosa. 

Koeleria. 

Glyceria. 

Uniola. 

Polypodium. 

Asplenium. 

Marsilea. 


DISTANCES,    ELEVATION    AND    LATITUDE. 


291 


(D.) 


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e  mouth 

ght-house 

r,  the  mouth 

er,    Montgomer 

above  the  mout 

d,  Missouri 

.  north  side  of  th 

leau     - 

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ts  pavement 

;arden  of  the  ca 

mbors  in  this  c 
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Q,-4->     M     -i     «      ^.-.     Q,            W 

*> 

292 


APPENDIX. 


(D.) — Continued. 


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O 

a 
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si 
o 

Q 


r^ 


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CO 


eo 
o 

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, 

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CO 

DISTANCES,    ELEVATION    AND    LATITUDE.  293 

(D.) — Continued. 


o  ooo  oo  ooo  oooo  oo  o 


O  O  O  O  O  Tj<  O 

CC  ^  O  CO 


O  -H  ^1  CJ  V-'T  •<*  I      I    O 

C5  O  CO  CO  Tj<  '-^ 

^  Ti  CI  c)  c)  CO  eo 

O  G>  o  o  o  o^  o> 


r-o  o  ooo                   oo 

CO  CO  CO  -^                                TT 

.-I  PJ  CO  'f  >.T  o)                    on       o 

rH  CO  I                 CO  >*  O  I      1    O         '-< 

-♦   Tf  T*  -*    Tf    ■^f                                        Tj<            O                      O             VO                     O 


o 

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CI 

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to 

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c^^-_2  ^^---cg^.c^ci       4's^oS'^cfe       §o  »:^2 


294 


APPENDIX. 


(D.) — Continued. 


a 

O 

o 


Co 

o 


60 


e3 


d 

•n 

o 

o 

■<-> 
< 

Nicollet. 

do. 
do. 
do 

do. 

do. 
do 

West  of 
Greenwich. 

Longitudes 
in  arc. 

93     26     45 

93     32    30 
93     39       0 

93  43       0 

94  34       0 

94  50     30 

95  2      0 

North  lati- 
tude. 

17     14     50 

47     11       4 

47     18     10 
47     14       0 

47     25     23 

47     28     46 
47     13     35 

•ODTXaj\[ 

JO  jfno  aq; 
aAoqB  sapnjijiy 

Feet. 

i  ,340 

1,356 

1,402 

]  ,456 
1 ,575 

1,680 

Estimated  dis- 
tances by  water. 

•ooixaj^ 

JO  "jino 

aq^  uioa  J 

Miles. 

2,627 

2,648 

2,664 
2,675 

2,755 

2,800 
2,890 

2,896 

■aoE|d 
oj  aaE|d 

c 

c 
c 

0 

i 

C 

c 
C 

c 
c 

p 

3 

3 
> 

[J 

»3 

J 

i 

•* 

Kabikons,  or   Little  Falls,   the  head  of 
the  falls 

Wanomon  River,  or  Vermilion  River,  the 
mouth 

Eagle  Nest  savannah  (Marais  aux  Nids 
d'Aigle  of  the  French)      -         -         . 

Leech  Lake  River,  tlie  mouth 

Lake   Cass,  the  old   trading- house  on  a 
tongue  of  land   near  the  entrance  of 
the  Missisippi             .... 

Pemidji  Lake   or  Lake  Travers,  the  en- 
trance of  the  Missisijjpi     ... 

Itasca  Lake,  Schoolcraft's  island    - 

Utmost  sources  of  the  Missisippi,  at  the 
summit  of  tlic   Hauteurs  do  Terre,  or 
Dividing-ridge,  between  tlie  Missisip- 
pi and  Red  River  of  the  north   - 

DISTANCES,     ELEVATiDN    AND    LVTITIUE. 


295 


(1).) — Conlimicd. 


m 

^ 

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^ 

1—4 

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H 

t 

m 

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Ph 

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296 


APPENDIX. 


(D.) — continued. 


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in 

3 

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c 

tx. 

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TS 

c     . 

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ri    C                                                                .         C 

C    O                                                                      CO 

o 

.—     CO                                                                                      ._             05 

5 

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CIUO^                       CO                       TtOCOOO 

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re  Lac  a  la 

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o 

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• 

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> 

V 
m 

ort  Char 
aux  Ou 

it  end 
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ganaga 
heast  en 

Bay  Com 
or  Rivi^ 

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age 
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nd,  ' 
d 

f  Sa 
sout 

son  '. 
ver, 

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o 

CO 

o 

t— 1 

t  William  - 
nd  Portage,  east  end 
nd  Portage,  west  cn( 
use  Portage,  or  Port 
tage  to  Arrow  River 
tage  of  Height  of  La 
nd  of  Height  of  Lan 
nd  in  the  Strait 
nd  at  the  entrance  o 
rked  Rock,  near  the 
nd  in  Lac  La  Croix 
ind  in  Lac  La  Croix 
ny  Lake  River,  Hud: 
uth  of  Rainy  Lake  Ri 

of  the  French 
nt  in  Namekom  Lak 
tage  du  Rat,  outlet  o 

* 

»-ririOt-fc-ririWjrtf3J5'—0        "SS 

f2ooof2f222Ss23«S    (2(2 

DISTANCES,     ELEVATION    AND  .LATITUDE. 


297 


m 

O 


m 
O 

< 


< 

O 
O 

a 
o 

o 

CQ 


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CO 

C 
CO 

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si 


CO 


(D) — Conlinucd. 


< 

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cd 

c 
o 

C 

o 

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Tti 

c 

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0) 


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a 

^  > 

■^  3 

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a 

CIS 


o  r" 


•—    re 


o      o 

CO         CJ 


I     I 


0 

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c? 

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CI 


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o  o  -^  -* 

T  C*l  ^  Ol 


C>  <T  o  o 
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o 


rt 


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JO  J in O 
am  aAoqc 

sapinmv 


> 
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>— 1        o 


0 


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^  «— c  CO  CO 


-r  O  »  CO  '» 

O   CO  CO   r-t 


vO  lO  cr  O  'O 

ry  -^  ^  Tj*  ^ 


■fc  CJ  I    O  CO     I    '^  CO  o 

-V  O  O  C>         CI  CO         Ci 


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<u  J. 


o  '^  a> 


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c  •-. 


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> 
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c 


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ri    IJ  O   _   3 

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3   tr 


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>  :-  ..  >i 


C  9  ''i 

C    «-    o 

rt   c   j; 


—  CO 

x:  CO 

o      >> 

c  c 

c   = 

o 

S-t     r^ 
t     ° 


X 


en 
^3 


ri 


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:::     Ui 


7: 

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rt  3 


Si -a 


C3 

^   O    (U 
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<y    ^ 

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vr  ^ 

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■^  (f-i 

.i      -  »- 

■^:^^ 

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I- «-  .i2  rs  s 

>   °   i  S 


298 


APPENDIX. 


m 

^ 

O 

1— H 

H 

i-H 

^ 

in 

j«. 

O 

^ 

yA 

«~ 

< 

« 

"»«.i 

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t— 1 

1 

ffi 

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1--^ 

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V 

o 

o 

o 

60 

H 

^1 

O 

(^ 

Uh 

o 

55 

H 

h^ 

m 

-'I 

H 

(D.) — Continued. 


.-    o 


'o  o  o  o 


ooo       ooo       o       o       oo 
flQQ      QQQ      Q      Q      QQ 


c 


c 
O 


CO 

^     . 

'i.s 


Tf.  «:•  o 


T-<  >-i  GO     , 

0 

CO  CO  CO 

OJ  05  o 


o  o 

CO  CO 


Oi 


05   O 


CM 


o 

Ci 


V.O 


CO 
CO 


o 

o 


o 


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CO 


C5 


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JO  JPO 

am    SAOqB 

sapnmiY 


c:  o  o  o 


(N  O  — I  OS 
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Tj-   '^   Tj<  T}* 

^  ^  "^  "^ 


O  C'  o 
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■*  o  o 


^  '^  <^       to  O  I> 

r-l  CO  CO         -«T  >-0  V.O 


Tf  rj<  r^ 
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CO 


rH  O   QO 


o       CO  r- 

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o 
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DISTANCES,    ELEVATION    AND    LATITUDE. 


301 


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APPENDIX. 


(D.) — Continued. 


O 


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1—4 

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Authori- 
ties, &.C. 

* 

'o  d  o  6            do  d  d  d  d       d 

O -c 'T3 'O              'U 'O 'C -a  TS  ^3        n3 

West  of 
Greenwich. 

Longitudes  in 
arc. 

99       8       0 

99     12      0 

99     20       0 

99     31     30 

100     12     30 

43     38      4 

43  41       0 

44  9       0 
44       7     31 
44     23     28 

•ooTxaH  JO  Jino  aq; 
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t^C^CDCOTi*                O5  00                      OO 
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r*>        UO  GO  O  CO             o  r-    '     '     '   -<*        o 

T-Hr-lC^i— (                      r— Ir-I                              ,-H             i—i 

Estimated  dis- 
tances by  water. 

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JO  iino 

aq;  uiojj 

•"S            '       1       '    O                   I       '    ViO  O  CD  O            ' 
1^                           (M                           <M  <N  (M  CJ 

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Hills  on  the  right  bank  of  Red  Cedar  Island- 
First  range          .             .            - 
Second  range       -             -            - 
Third  range         .             -            - 
Sailor  Island,  one  mile  below      .             -            - 
Hills  on  the  left  bank,  between  Sailor  Is- 
land and  White  River,  viz  : 
Top  of  the  Black  Zone  (pseudo  volcano) 
Top  of  the  upland,  or  Biyou's  Hills 
Mankizita,  or  White  River,  the  mouth    - 
Lower  Island,  or  beginning  of  the  Great  Bend    - 
Dry  Wood  River,  one  mile  below  the  entrance    - 
Fort  Pierre  Chouteau,  on  tlie  right  bank 

Highest  point,  northeast,  two  miles  from 
Fort  Pierre,  on  the  opposite  bank 

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HOOK  Sliol', 
Certur  Ranirtt.  IOWA. 


